Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 High Frequency DC-DC Conversion using High Current Bipolar Transistors 400kHz Operation with Optimised Geometry Devices Neil Chadderton Dino Rosaldi Introduction DC-DC conversion is o n e o f t h e fundamental circuit functions within the electronics industry and addresses a wide field of market sectors, applications and supply requirements. A general trend, (to pursue cost, size and reliability advantages) has been to reduce the size of the DC-DC converter systems, and as the inductive elements of such a system are quite often the bulkiest components, increases in s w i t c h i n g f r e q u e nc y p r ov i d e o n e method to allow this. Switching frequencies therefore have increased from tens of kHz to hundreds of kHz, which has forced a revision of the enabling switching devices. It is an often assumed maxim that bipolar transistors are useful for DC-DC conversion functions up to perhaps 50kHz, and for service beyond this frequency, that MOSFETs provide the only solution. The purpose of this application note is to demonstrate that bipolar transistors possessing superior geometrys - thereby providing a higher current capability per die area, can and are operated to reasonably high switching frequencies with minimal loss. This often allows a more compact de s i gn (du e to the higher s ilicon efficiency of bipolar technology) and lower cost. Background To obtain the most efficient performance f r o m b i p o l a r t r a n s i s to r s a t h i g h switching frequencies, an appreciation of the basic switching mechanisms and base charge analysis is useful. Appendix A provides an introduction to bipolar transistor switching behaviour, and appendix B provides references for mathematical treatments. There are various methods for increasing the maximum switching speed of bipolar transistors. Some of these rely on preventing saturation of the device, thus vastly reducing the stored charge, while other methods remove the charge at turn-off. Figures 1, 2 and 5 show a number of common speed-up networks. Figures 1a through 1d show various options for preventing saturation, and effectively reduce/limit base drive when the collector terminal has fallen to a specific level. (Figure 1a is often termed a Schottky transistor, and is often used for IC transistors, and AN22 - 1 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 ZTX789A Input Q3 Q1 1K 2N3904 Q1 L2 200uH 1N5820 +Bat 100uF Q1 L1 10uH Q2 a b Q2 2N3904 Drive D3 R1 R2 Feedback D2 330 Q1 Q1 D1 c 1N4148 R3 C1 d Figure 2. PNP Transistor Speed-up Circuit to Allow Replacement of P-Channel MOSFETs within High Current Converters. (The circuit shown is suitable for output currents up to 1.5A; other variants are capable of operation to 5A output). Figure 1. Non-saturating Bipolar Transistor Speed-up Methods. Figures 1c and 1d are variants of the so called Baker clamp circuit). These methods (the Baker clamp being preferred for high power applications) of course do not allow the transistor's collector-emitter voltage to saturate to a very low level, and so the resultant on-state loss may be high and therefore prohibit the use of smaller packaged, though adequately current capable devices. Figures 2 and 5 show two methods that allow true saturation by permitting sufficient forward base drive, while removing charge quickly at turn-off. Design of such networks is non-critical, and by suitable choice of components allow high levels of base overdrive with no penalty to turn-off time duration. Figure 2 shows a method of speeding up PNP devices to enable replacement of large P-Channel MOSFETs - this particular circuit being designed for fast charging of ba tte ry pa cks by Benchmarq Microelectronics. Figures 3 and 4 show the relevant waveforms, for a standard passive turn-off method (base-emitter pull-up resistor) and the speed-up circuit of Figure 2 - the combined storage and fall times being reduced from 1.2s to 80ns. Importantly, the major switching loss contributor - the fall time, has been significantly reduced to 40ns, which is comparable to, or better than P-Channel MOSFET performance. This allows cost effective replacement of large packaged devices. AN22 - 2 Figure 3. Turn-off Waveforms for PNP Step-down Converter using Passive Turn-off. Upper Trace - Collector-to-0V, 5V/div; Middle Trace - PNP base-to-0V; Lower Trace - PWM IC Output, 5v/div. Timebase at 2s/div. Figure 4. Turn-off Waveforms for PNP Step-down Converter (of Figure 2) using Active Turn-off. Upper Trace - Collector-to-0V, 5V/div; Middle Trace - PNP base-to-0V; Lower Trace - PWM IC Output, 5v/div. Timebase at 2s/div. AN22 - 3 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 ZTX789A Input Q3 Q1 1K 2N3904 Q1 L2 200uH 1N5820 +Bat 100uF Q1 L1 10uH Q2 a b Q2 2N3904 Drive D3 R1 R2 Feedback D2 330 Q1 Q1 D1 c 1N4148 R3 C1 d Figure 2. PNP Transistor Speed-up Circuit to Allow Replacement of P-Channel MOSFETs within High Current Converters. (The circuit shown is suitable for output currents up to 1.5A; other variants are capable of operation to 5A output). Figure 1. Non-saturating Bipolar Transistor Speed-up Methods. Figures 1c and 1d are variants of the so called Baker clamp circuit). These methods (the Baker clamp being preferred for high power applications) of course do not allow the transistor's collector-emitter voltage to saturate to a very low level, and so the resultant on-state loss may be high and therefore prohibit the use of smaller packaged, though adequately current capable devices. Figures 2 and 5 show two methods that allow true saturation by permitting sufficient forward base drive, while removing charge quickly at turn-off. Design of such networks is non-critical, and by suitable choice of components allow high levels of base overdrive with no penalty to turn-off time duration. Figure 2 shows a method of speeding up PNP devices to enable replacement of large P-Channel MOSFETs - this particular circuit being designed for fast charging of ba tte ry pa cks by Benchmarq Microelectronics. Figures 3 and 4 show the relevant waveforms, for a standard passive turn-off method (base-emitter pull-up resistor) and the speed-up circuit of Figure 2 - the combined storage and fall times being reduced from 1.2s to 80ns. Importantly, the major switching loss contributor - the fall time, has been significantly reduced to 40ns, which is comparable to, or better than P-Channel MOSFET performance. This allows cost effective replacement of large packaged devices. AN22 - 2 Figure 3. Turn-off Waveforms for PNP Step-down Converter using Passive Turn-off. Upper Trace - Collector-to-0V, 5V/div; Middle Trace - PNP base-to-0V; Lower Trace - PWM IC Output, 5v/div. Timebase at 2s/div. Figure 4. Turn-off Waveforms for PNP Step-down Converter (of Figure 2) using Active Turn-off. Upper Trace - Collector-to-0V, 5V/div; Middle Trace - PNP base-to-0V; Lower Trace - PWM IC Output, 5v/div. Timebase at 2s/div. AN22 - 3 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 +5V measurements for the ZTX1048A - for example, at a collector current of 1A and a forced gain of 200, a turn-off charge of 900pC is required to neutralise stored charge and eliminate storage time effects. 100n ZTX1048A C To Oscilloscope Q1 +5V Input RB 0V 0V Figure 5. Capacitive Speed-up method/Circuit to Determine Minimum Value of Turn-Off Charge of a Bipolar Transistor. Stored Charge (C) IC/IB=50 RC IC/IB=100 IC/IB=150 IC/IB=200 10n [Note 1: Appendix A also includes some ancillary material on the minimum amount of trigger charge necessary for pulse circuits]. 1n 0.1 1 10 IC - Collector Current (A) Power Conversion Circuits Stored Charge v IC Figure 8. Turn-off Charge Required as a Function of Collector Current and Forced Gain, for the ZTX1048A Bipolar Transistor. Figure 5 shows the standard speed-up c a p a c i t a n c e m e t h o d , a l t h o u gh i n practice a finished design would use a fixed value capacitor. A similar circuit can also be used to determine the capacitance required for a particular bias condition. In practise the variable capac itance (or value of parallel capacitance) is adjusted such that the sum of stored charge and junction capacitance charge is just removed allowing for device variation, temperature and bias tolerance. Figure 6. Turn-Off Waveforms, and Effect of Va ry ing Pa r a lle l ("S p eed -Up ") Capacitance. Upper trace - Input waveform; lower traces - (a) C=0, (b) C=100pF, (c) C=120pF, (d) C=130pF (stored charge just removed). Figure 7. Turn-Off Waveforms, and Effect of V aryi n g Par allel ("S peed-Up") Capacitance. Trace (a) - Input waveform; turn-off traces - (b) C=0, (c) C=470pF, (d) C=820pF, (e) C=1.5nF (stored charge removed). Horizontal scale=200ns/div, Vertical scale=2V/div. ZTX300, IB=1mA, IC=10mA. Horizontal scale=500ns/div, Vertical scales: Input=2V/div; collector=5V/div. ZTX1048A, IB=10mA, IC=500mA. AN22 - 4 The oscillographs in Figures 6 and 7 show the effec t of increasing the capacitor value from zero (Eg. open circuit) to a value adequate to neutralise the stored charge. Figure 6 is for a small signal device, while Figure 7 is for the ZTX1048A - a transistor utilising the Zetex Matrix geometry, and a Super- emitter process to produce a 4A DC rated part in the TO92 style E-Line package. Figure 8 summarises a set of such T o d e m o n s t r a t e t he p e r f or m a nc e advantages possible when the bipolar transistor's turn-off charge is addressed, this section considers such modifications to a basic step-down DC-DC converter. The circuit shown in Figure 9 was used to provide a means of evaluation, and is of fairly standard implementation, apart from the choice of the FMMT718 SuperSOT SOT23 PNP transistor. This circuit, with minimal design optimisation, can produce the efficiency against load current characteristic shown in Figure 10. This chart also shows how the bias conditions for the pass device can be modified to increase the current capability of the circuit, albeit with some compromise to conversion efficiency at lower load currents. Curves 1, 2 and 3 illustrate this effect for base currents of 9.4mA, 43mA and 170mA respectively. Figure 11 shows how the efficiency varies with input voltage for the IB=43mA option. Higher output current designs are possible with larger die transistors from the Zetex range, such as the ZTX788B, ZTX789A, ZTX790A, ZTX948 and ZTX949. For a comprehensive listing please refer to Semiconductor Data Books one and two. AN22 - 5 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 +5V measurements for the ZTX1048A - for example, at a collector current of 1A and a forced gain of 200, a turn-off charge of 900pC is required to neutralise stored charge and eliminate storage time effects. 100n ZTX1048A C To Oscilloscope Q1 +5V Input RB 0V 0V Figure 5. Capacitive Speed-up method/Circuit to Determine Minimum Value of Turn-Off Charge of a Bipolar Transistor. Stored Charge (C) IC/IB=50 RC IC/IB=100 IC/IB=150 IC/IB=200 10n [Note 1: Appendix A also includes some ancillary material on the minimum amount of trigger charge necessary for pulse circuits]. 1n 0.1 1 10 IC - Collector Current (A) Power Conversion Circuits Stored Charge v IC Figure 8. Turn-off Charge Required as a Function of Collector Current and Forced Gain, for the ZTX1048A Bipolar Transistor. Figure 5 shows the standard speed-up c a p a c i t a n c e m e t h o d , a l t h o u gh i n practice a finished design would use a fixed value capacitor. A similar circuit can also be used to determine the capacitance required for a particular bias condition. In practise the variable capac itance (or value of parallel capacitance) is adjusted such that the sum of stored charge and junction capacitance charge is just removed allowing for device variation, temperature and bias tolerance. Figure 6. Turn-Off Waveforms, and Effect of Va ry ing Pa r a lle l ("S p eed -Up ") Capacitance. Upper trace - Input waveform; lower traces - (a) C=0, (b) C=100pF, (c) C=120pF, (d) C=130pF (stored charge just removed). Figure 7. Turn-Off Waveforms, and Effect of V aryi n g Par allel ("S peed-Up") Capacitance. Trace (a) - Input waveform; turn-off traces - (b) C=0, (c) C=470pF, (d) C=820pF, (e) C=1.5nF (stored charge removed). Horizontal scale=200ns/div, Vertical scale=2V/div. ZTX300, IB=1mA, IC=10mA. Horizontal scale=500ns/div, Vertical scales: Input=2V/div; collector=5V/div. ZTX1048A, IB=10mA, IC=500mA. AN22 - 4 The oscillographs in Figures 6 and 7 show the effec t of increasing the capacitor value from zero (Eg. open circuit) to a value adequate to neutralise the stored charge. Figure 6 is for a small signal device, while Figure 7 is for the ZTX1048A - a transistor utilising the Zetex Matrix geometry, and a Super- emitter process to produce a 4A DC rated part in the TO92 style E-Line package. Figure 8 summarises a set of such T o d e m o n s t r a t e t he p e r f or m a nc e advantages possible when the bipolar transistor's turn-off charge is addressed, this section considers such modifications to a basic step-down DC-DC converter. The circuit shown in Figure 9 was used to provide a means of evaluation, and is of fairly standard implementation, apart from the choice of the FMMT718 SuperSOT SOT23 PNP transistor. This circuit, with minimal design optimisation, can produce the efficiency against load current characteristic shown in Figure 10. This chart also shows how the bias conditions for the pass device can be modified to increase the current capability of the circuit, albeit with some compromise to conversion efficiency at lower load currents. Curves 1, 2 and 3 illustrate this effect for base currents of 9.4mA, 43mA and 170mA respectively. Figure 11 shows how the efficiency varies with input voltage for the IB=43mA option. Higher output current designs are possible with larger die transistors from the Zetex range, such as the ZTX788B, ZTX789A, ZTX790A, ZTX948 and ZTX949. For a comprehensive listing please refer to Semiconductor Data Books one and two. AN22 - 5 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 FMMT 718 220uH +5V/ +3.3V 220 80 Efficiency (%) 30K 150 LL5818 0.05 ILim C Vin 470uF -ve Vin 22pF PWM IC 1000uF E 2 40 Osc 10 0.01 7K5/ 220pF 13K (Set Vout) 1.8n Figure 9. Basic Step-Down DC-DC Converter using the LM3578 and the FMMT718. (With values shown, Fop=50kHz, IB=43mA, peak efficiency=88%). 10 Figure 12. Efficiency against Load Current for the Converter of Figure 9. IB=43mA; Fop=90kHz; Vin=7V; Vout=5V. Effect of Variation of Inductor Value. Curve 1 - 25H, Curve 2 - 180H. 100 80 1 Efficiency v Output Current 0V 100 0.1 Output Current (A) 0V To investigate optio ns for higher switching frequencies requires a change to the PWM controller IC. Figure 13 shows a circuit based on the TI5001 device. This IC is capable of operation up to a switching frequency of 400kHz, and can sink a maximum of 20mA into the VO pin. The initial circuit was configured to operate at 150kHz, with the FMMT718 base current set to 9mA by a 560 base resistor (R1) - effectively a forced gain of 222 at 2A. Turn-on and turn-off times were measured at 200ns and 1.44s 80 1 Efficiency (%) Efficiency (%) 1 60 20 470K +ve Gnd Optimisation, and some scope for higher frequency operation is possible with this basic converter. Figure 12 shows the effect of varying the inductors value, with the switching frequency set to 90kHz. Turn-on time was recorded at 55ns, and turn-off at 1.5s. 100 60 2 40 3 20 Vin 60 0.1uF 560 1000uF ZTX718 40 L1 Vout 20 D1 470uF 1N5818 Vcc 10 0.01 0 0.1 1 5 10 7 9 11 13 Output Current (A) Input Voltage (V) Efficiency v Output Current Efficiency v Input Voltage Figure 10. Efficiency against Load Current for the Converter of Figure 9, with IB a s a parameter. Curve 1 - IB=9.4mA; Curve 2 - IB=43mA; Curve 3 - IB=170mA. Fop=50kHz; Vin=7V; Vout=5V. 15 Figure 11. Efficiency against Input Voltage for the Converter of Figure 9. (IB=43mA; Iout=1A). AN22 - 6 40uH R1 DTC 22k Vo SCP TL5001 4.7nF Comp 10nF Rf 2k2 5k6 F/b RT 5k6 Gnd Figure 13. Basic Step-Down DC-DC Converter using the TI5001 and the FMMT718. (With values shown, Fop=150kHz, IB=9mA, peak efficiency=81%). AN22 - 7 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 FMMT 718 220uH +5V/ +3.3V 220 80 Efficiency (%) 30K 150 LL5818 0.05 ILim C Vin 470uF -ve Vin 22pF PWM IC 1000uF E 2 40 Osc 10 0.01 7K5/ 220pF 13K (Set Vout) 1.8n Figure 9. Basic Step-Down DC-DC Converter using the LM3578 and the FMMT718. (With values shown, Fop=50kHz, IB=43mA, peak efficiency=88%). 10 Figure 12. Efficiency against Load Current for the Converter of Figure 9. IB=43mA; Fop=90kHz; Vin=7V; Vout=5V. Effect of Variation of Inductor Value. Curve 1 - 25H, Curve 2 - 180H. 100 80 1 Efficiency v Output Current 0V 100 0.1 Output Current (A) 0V To investigate optio ns for higher switching frequencies requires a change to the PWM controller IC. Figure 13 shows a circuit based on the TI5001 device. This IC is capable of operation up to a switching frequency of 400kHz, and can sink a maximum of 20mA into the VO pin. The initial circuit was configured to operate at 150kHz, with the FMMT718 base current set to 9mA by a 560 base resistor (R1) - effectively a forced gain of 222 at 2A. Turn-on and turn-off times were measured at 200ns and 1.44s 80 1 Efficiency (%) Efficiency (%) 1 60 20 470K +ve Gnd Optimisation, and some scope for higher frequency operation is possible with this basic converter. Figure 12 shows the effect of varying the inductors value, with the switching frequency set to 90kHz. Turn-on time was recorded at 55ns, and turn-off at 1.5s. 100 60 2 40 3 20 Vin 60 0.1uF 560 1000uF ZTX718 40 L1 Vout 20 D1 470uF 1N5818 Vcc 10 0.01 0 0.1 1 5 10 7 9 11 13 Output Current (A) Input Voltage (V) Efficiency v Output Current Efficiency v Input Voltage Figure 10. Efficiency against Load Current for the Converter of Figure 9, with IB a s a parameter. Curve 1 - IB=9.4mA; Curve 2 - IB=43mA; Curve 3 - IB=170mA. Fop=50kHz; Vin=7V; Vout=5V. 15 Figure 11. Efficiency against Input Voltage for the Converter of Figure 9. (IB=43mA; Iout=1A). AN22 - 6 40uH R1 DTC 22k Vo SCP TL5001 4.7nF Comp 10nF Rf 2k2 5k6 F/b RT 5k6 Gnd Figure 13. Basic Step-Down DC-DC Converter using the TI5001 and the FMMT718. (With values shown, Fop=150kHz, IB=9mA, peak efficiency=81%). AN22 - 7 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 respectively. The chart shown in Figure 14 (curve 1) illustrates the resultant efficiency versus load profile. The circuit's conversion efficiency peaks at 81% at 23mA output, but falls thereafter to 71% at 2A, due mainly to switching losses, though in some part to increasing VCE(sat) at higher currents. The latter factor could be addressed in part by considering the load requirements, and optimising for the relevant condition, but the switching losses would remain. Q2 100 R1 1 Efficiency (%) 80 60 2 C1 R2 Q1 D1 40 20 0 0.01 0.1 PWM IC 10 1 Figure 15. Bipolar Transistor Turn-off Circuit to allow Capacitive Turn-off Charge Neutralisation with PWM Controller IC. Output Current (A) Efficiency v Output Current Figure 14. Efficiency against Load Current for the Converters of Figure 13 and 16. L1 FMMT718 Vin 40uH Figure 17. Switching Waveforms for the circuit of Figure 16, operating at 150kHz. Upper trace; 2V/div, Collector-to-0V. Lower tr a ce ; 2V / d i v , B a s e- t o -0 V. Vin=7V, Vout=5V, IL=220mA. Vout By considering the base turn-off charge and effecting a suitable turn-off circuit (Figure 15) the circuit shown in Figure 16 was produced. This shows a significant improvement in conversion efficiency at medium to higher currents; as shown in 100 D1 390 0.1uF 1000uF FMMT3904 1N4148 1N5818 80 470uF 2.2nF 22k Vcc 2k2 SCP DTC Rf Vo TL5001 RT Comp 4.7nF 10nF 5k6 Efficiency (%) 560 3 1 60 2 5 4 40 20 F/b 5k6 Gnd 0 0.01 0.1 1 Output Current (A) Figure 16. Basic Step-down DC-DC Converter using the TI5001/FMMT718 Combination with Capacitive Turn-off Circuit. AN22 - 8 10 Figure 18. Efficiency against Load Current for the Converter of Figure 16. Curve 1 - Fop=150kHz; curve 2 - 220kHz; curve 3 - 300kHz; curve 4 - 400kHz. IB=10mA. Curve 5 - 400kHz and IB=5mA.Vin=7V, Vout=5V. AN22 - 9 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 respectively. The chart shown in Figure 14 (curve 1) illustrates the resultant efficiency versus load profile. The circuit's conversion efficiency peaks at 81% at 23mA output, but falls thereafter to 71% at 2A, due mainly to switching losses, though in some part to increasing VCE(sat) at higher currents. The latter factor could be addressed in part by considering the load requirements, and optimising for the relevant condition, but the switching losses would remain. Q2 100 R1 1 Efficiency (%) 80 60 2 C1 R2 Q1 D1 40 20 0 0.01 0.1 PWM IC 10 1 Figure 15. Bipolar Transistor Turn-off Circuit to allow Capacitive Turn-off Charge Neutralisation with PWM Controller IC. Output Current (A) Efficiency v Output Current Figure 14. Efficiency against Load Current for the Converters of Figure 13 and 16. L1 FMMT718 Vin 40uH Figure 17. Switching Waveforms for the circuit of Figure 16, operating at 150kHz. Upper trace; 2V/div, Collector-to-0V. Lower tr a ce ; 2V / d i v , B a s e- t o -0 V. Vin=7V, Vout=5V, IL=220mA. Vout By considering the base turn-off charge and effecting a suitable turn-off circuit (Figure 15) the circuit shown in Figure 16 was produced. This shows a significant improvement in conversion efficiency at medium to higher currents; as shown in 100 D1 390 0.1uF 1000uF FMMT3904 1N4148 1N5818 80 470uF 2.2nF 22k Vcc 2k2 SCP DTC Rf Vo TL5001 RT Comp 4.7nF 10nF 5k6 Efficiency (%) 560 3 1 60 2 5 4 40 20 F/b 5k6 Gnd 0 0.01 0.1 1 Output Current (A) Figure 16. Basic Step-down DC-DC Converter using the TI5001/FMMT718 Combination with Capacitive Turn-off Circuit. AN22 - 8 10 Figure 18. Efficiency against Load Current for the Converter of Figure 16. Curve 1 - Fop=150kHz; curve 2 - 220kHz; curve 3 - 300kHz; curve 4 - 400kHz. IB=10mA. Curve 5 - 400kHz and IB=5mA.Vin=7V, Vout=5V. AN22 - 9 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 Figure 14, curve 2. This shows a peak efficiency of 92%. Figure 17 shows the switching waveforms, including the collector-to-0V waveform - note the rapid turn-off edge; this was measured to be 25ns. The efficiency at lower currents has of course reduced, due to the extra current taken by the turn-off circuit. This efficiency profile can be modified for specific applications by sacrificing high current efficiency in favour of low current performance or vice-versa. Further modifications were effected to assess performance at still higher switching frequencies. Figure 18 shows the efficiency/load current profiles for switching frequencies from 150kHz to 400kHz. Figure 19 shows the efficiency against input voltage for the 220kHz version - the curve varying little over the measured range. Figure 18 curve 5, is again for a switching frequency of 400kHz, but with lower base drive (RB=680) and a reduction to 1.5nF for the turn-off capacitor. The oscillographs shown in Figures 20 and 21 show the turn-on and turn-off switching waveforms for the 400kHz version. These show collector rise and fall times of 20ns and 30ns respectively. Conclusions Figure 20. Switching Waveforms for the Converter of Figure 16 operating at 400kHz. Turn-on edges. Risetime= 20ns. Upper trace - Base-to-0V, 2V/div. Lower trace - Collector-to-0V, 2V/div. Timebase at 50ns/div. 100 80 Efficiency (%) Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 This application note has demonstrated that with due attention to the base and collector charge phenomena in bipolar transistors, the operating switching frequency of those parts can be extended well beyond the currently accepted notional maximum of 40kHz, to several hundred kHz. Various speed-up methods have been summarised, and examples of those particularly suitable and complementary to high current capable transistors examined, and circuit examples presented. 60 40 20 0 5 7 9 11 13 15 Input Voltage (V) Efficiency v Input Voltage Figure 19. Efficiency against Input Voltage for the Converter of Figure 16. Fop=220kHz; Vout=5V; load current=1A. Figure 21. Switching Waveforms for the Converter of Figure 16 operating at 400kHz. Turn-off edges. Falltime=30ns. Upper trace - Base-to-0V, 2V/div. Lower trace - Collector-to-0V, 2V/div. Timebase at 50ns/div. AN22 - 10 AN22 - 11 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 Figure 14, curve 2. This shows a peak efficiency of 92%. Figure 17 shows the switching waveforms, including the collector-to-0V waveform - note the rapid turn-off edge; this was measured to be 25ns. The efficiency at lower currents has of course reduced, due to the extra current taken by the turn-off circuit. This efficiency profile can be modified for specific applications by sacrificing high current efficiency in favour of low current performance or vice-versa. Further modifications were effected to assess performance at still higher switching frequencies. Figure 18 shows the efficiency/load current profiles for switching frequencies from 150kHz to 400kHz. Figure 19 shows the efficiency against input voltage for the 220kHz version - the curve varying little over the measured range. Figure 18 curve 5, is again for a switching frequency of 400kHz, but with lower base drive (RB=680) and a reduction to 1.5nF for the turn-off capacitor. The oscillographs shown in Figures 20 and 21 show the turn-on and turn-off switching waveforms for the 400kHz version. These show collector rise and fall times of 20ns and 30ns respectively. Conclusions Figure 20. Switching Waveforms for the Converter of Figure 16 operating at 400kHz. Turn-on edges. Risetime= 20ns. Upper trace - Base-to-0V, 2V/div. Lower trace - Collector-to-0V, 2V/div. Timebase at 50ns/div. 100 80 Efficiency (%) Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 This application note has demonstrated that with due attention to the base and collector charge phenomena in bipolar transistors, the operating switching frequency of those parts can be extended well beyond the currently accepted notional maximum of 40kHz, to several hundred kHz. Various speed-up methods have been summarised, and examples of those particularly suitable and complementary to high current capable transistors examined, and circuit examples presented. 60 40 20 0 5 7 9 11 13 15 Input Voltage (V) Efficiency v Input Voltage Figure 19. Efficiency against Input Voltage for the Converter of Figure 16. Fop=220kHz; Vout=5V; load current=1A. Figure 21. Switching Waveforms for the Converter of Figure 16 operating at 400kHz. Turn-off edges. Falltime=30ns. Upper trace - Base-to-0V, 2V/div. Lower trace - Collector-to-0V, 2V/div. Timebase at 50ns/div. AN22 - 10 AN22 - 11 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 In order to understand the requirement for speed-up capacitors, consider the simple inverter circuit shown in Figure 22, and the resultant switching waveforms shown schematically in Figure 23. Appendix A Bipolar Transistor Switching Behaviour In most swi tching circ uits tri gger capacitors are required to differentiate pulses and provide DC isolation between stages, and speed-up capacitors are needed to neutralise the stored charge a n d j u n c t i o n c a p a c i ta nc e s o f th e transistors. In most cases it is sufficient to choose values small enough not to interfere with the operation of the circuit at its maxi mum freque ncy . The se capacitors do however have minimum v a l u e s d e p e nd in g on t he ty pe o f transistor used, the base and collector currents, and the amplitude of the waveforms involved. +5V Initially Q1 is cut off with its base-emitter (b-e) junction reverse biased to -1.67V and its collector-base (c-b) reverse biased by 6.67V. On the rising edge of the input pulse the potential at point A (VBE) rises exponentially as the junction capacitances of the transistor charge, until the VBE reaches 0.6-0.7V and the b-e junction starts to conduct significant current. The time before this occurs from the start of the input pulse is termed the delay time, td. As the base current (IB) flows, charged carriers accumulate in the base region, and the collector current increases in proportion until it is Input Voltage +5V 0V R3 1k Base Voltage Cbc Output Collector Current R1 5mA R2 20k ts 0mA Q1 td 10k Input 0.7V 0V -1.67V Collector Voltage Cbe +5V tr tf 0V 0V -5V Simple Inverter Switching Waveform Figure 22. Figure 23. Bipolar Transistor Switching Circuit for Bipolar Transistor Switching Waveforms Illustration of Basic Switching Behaviour. for the Inverter Circuit of Figure 22. AN22 - 12 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 limited by the collector load resistance R3. The time taken for the collector current to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value is the rise time, tr. As the collector voltage approaches zero, the c-b junction becomes forward biased and conducts the excess base current. The base now starts acting as an emitter and begins to inject charge carriers into the collector. This causes a considerable accumulation of charge in the collector region which must be removed, either by recombination or by reverse base current, before the device can begin to turn off. The time taken for this excess charge to be removed is called the storage time (ts), and during this time the transistor remains saturated. At the end of the storage time all excess charge carriers have been removed and the base charge is simply that required to maintain collector current. As this charge is reduced further the collector current falls in sympathy until the device is cut off. The time taken for the collector current to fall from 90% to 10% is called the fall time, tf. Due to the l ow leakage of silicon transistors, it is not usually necessary to reverse bias the base to ensure DC stability. This does tend to reduce the delay time, but increases the storage and fall times as the stored charge can only be dissipated by recombination ins tead of b y t he rev erse curren t provided by R2. This can be overcome by including a capacitor in parallel with the base drive resistor, of such value that the charge stored on it is sufficient to neutralis e the total charge in the transistor. This value will be dependent on the transistor type, the base and collector currents and the amplitude of the input or driving pulse. For practical applications it is necessary to determine th e r e q u i r e d c a p a c i t o r v a l u e s b y measurement, preferably using a worst case version of the circuit. As a guide, minimum values of turn-off charge have been provided for small signal, switching and high current low VCE(sat) transistors, and are reproduced for various DC conditions within Appendix C. These charts were produced using test circuits similar to that shown in Figure 5. As carrier diffusion coefficients and recombination are temperature dependent, then storage time will also possess this dependence to some degree. Therefore in some circumstances allowance must be made, a n d c o m p o n e n t v a l u e s a d j u s te d accordingly. The mount of trigger charge necessary for pulse applications can be considered in a similar manner, and for obtaining approximate values the circuit shown in Figure 24 can be employed. The values o b t a i n e d a r e h i g h e r t h a n fo r th e "speed-up" case as the trigger capacitor not only has to remove the stored charge but also has to overcome the DC bias provided by RB. In a practical circuit, th e r e m a y w e l l b e a d d i t i o n a l components, which will absorb some fraction of the trigger charge. Therefore it will usually be necessary to use a h i g h e r v a l u e o f c a p a c i t a n c e t h an measurement (or provided curves) would suggest - it is advised to closely breadboard/model the actual circuit as closely as possible with worst case component values. Figure 25 shows an example oscillograph for the ZTX300 small signal device, and Figure 26 presents curves for the minimum trigger AN22 - 13 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 In order to understand the requirement for speed-up capacitors, consider the simple inverter circuit shown in Figure 22, and the resultant switching waveforms shown schematically in Figure 23. Appendix A Bipolar Transistor Switching Behaviour In most swi tching circ uits tri gger capacitors are required to differentiate pulses and provide DC isolation between stages, and speed-up capacitors are needed to neutralise the stored charge a n d j u n c t i o n c a p a c i ta nc e s o f th e transistors. In most cases it is sufficient to choose values small enough not to interfere with the operation of the circuit at its maxi mum freque ncy . The se capacitors do however have minimum v a l u e s d e p e nd in g on t he ty pe o f transistor used, the base and collector currents, and the amplitude of the waveforms involved. +5V Initially Q1 is cut off with its base-emitter (b-e) junction reverse biased to -1.67V and its collector-base (c-b) reverse biased by 6.67V. On the rising edge of the input pulse the potential at point A (VBE) rises exponentially as the junction capacitances of the transistor charge, until the VBE reaches 0.6-0.7V and the b-e junction starts to conduct significant current. The time before this occurs from the start of the input pulse is termed the delay time, td. As the base current (IB) flows, charged carriers accumulate in the base region, and the collector current increases in proportion until it is Input Voltage +5V 0V R3 1k Base Voltage Cbc Output Collector Current R1 5mA R2 20k ts 0mA Q1 td 10k Input 0.7V 0V -1.67V Collector Voltage Cbe +5V tr tf 0V 0V -5V Simple Inverter Switching Waveform Figure 22. Figure 23. Bipolar Transistor Switching Circuit for Bipolar Transistor Switching Waveforms Illustration of Basic Switching Behaviour. for the Inverter Circuit of Figure 22. AN22 - 12 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 limited by the collector load resistance R3. The time taken for the collector current to rise from 10% to 90% of its final value is the rise time, tr. As the collector voltage approaches zero, the c-b junction becomes forward biased and conducts the excess base current. The base now starts acting as an emitter and begins to inject charge carriers into the collector. This causes a considerable accumulation of charge in the collector region which must be removed, either by recombination or by reverse base current, before the device can begin to turn off. The time taken for this excess charge to be removed is called the storage time (ts), and during this time the transistor remains saturated. At the end of the storage time all excess charge carriers have been removed and the base charge is simply that required to maintain collector current. As this charge is reduced further the collector current falls in sympathy until the device is cut off. The time taken for the collector current to fall from 90% to 10% is called the fall time, tf. Due to the l ow leakage of silicon transistors, it is not usually necessary to reverse bias the base to ensure DC stability. This does tend to reduce the delay time, but increases the storage and fall times as the stored charge can only be dissipated by recombination ins tead of b y t he rev erse curren t provided by R2. This can be overcome by including a capacitor in parallel with the base drive resistor, of such value that the charge stored on it is sufficient to neutralis e the total charge in the transistor. This value will be dependent on the transistor type, the base and collector currents and the amplitude of the input or driving pulse. For practical applications it is necessary to determine th e r e q u i r e d c a p a c i t o r v a l u e s b y measurement, preferably using a worst case version of the circuit. As a guide, minimum values of turn-off charge have been provided for small signal, switching and high current low VCE(sat) transistors, and are reproduced for various DC conditions within Appendix C. These charts were produced using test circuits similar to that shown in Figure 5. As carrier diffusion coefficients and recombination are temperature dependent, then storage time will also possess this dependence to some degree. Therefore in some circumstances allowance must be made, a n d c o m p o n e n t v a l u e s a d j u s te d accordingly. The mount of trigger charge necessary for pulse applications can be considered in a similar manner, and for obtaining approximate values the circuit shown in Figure 24 can be employed. The values o b t a i n e d a r e h i g h e r t h a n fo r th e "speed-up" case as the trigger capacitor not only has to remove the stored charge but also has to overcome the DC bias provided by RB. In a practical circuit, th e r e m a y w e l l b e a d d i t i o n a l components, which will absorb some fraction of the trigger charge. Therefore it will usually be necessary to use a h i g h e r v a l u e o f c a p a c i t a n c e t h an measurement (or provided curves) would suggest - it is advised to closely breadboard/model the actual circuit as closely as possible with worst case component values. Figure 25 shows an example oscillograph for the ZTX300 small signal device, and Figure 26 presents curves for the minimum trigger AN22 - 13 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 +5V Appendix B References To Oscilloscope (References 1, 2 and 3 contain mathematical treatment of charge analysis with respect to switching characteristics of bipolar transistors similar background can be found in most semiconductor physics books). RC C1 1. Switching Transistor Handbook, chapter five - "Transient Characteristics of Transistors" . Motorola Inc., Technical Editor William D. Roehr. Q1 Input 0V a ZTX107 b ZTX300 c ZTX500 1n 10n ZTX869 a b ZTX510 c ZTX949 IC/I B=50 Stored Charge (C) 10n IC/IB=100 IC/I B=150 10n IC/IB=200 IC/IB=50 IC/I B=100 IC/I B=150 1n 100p 1n 0.1 10 1 0.1 IC - Collector Current (A) ZTX310 100n 1m and Switching Transistors Figure 26. Minimum Trigger Charge for Small Signal and Switching Transistors. Forced Gains (IC/IB) of : a)10; b)20; c)40. No significant difference observed for different forced gains on the ZTX310 series. 10 100n ZTX968 10m ZTX1048A IC/I B=50 Stored Charge (C) 10p 100u 1 IC - Collector Current (A) Stored Charge v IC for ZTX949 Stored Charge v IC for ZTX869 IB - Base Current (A) Min. Trigger Charge v IB for Small Signal AN22 - 14 4. Switching and Linear Power Supply, Power Converter Design. Abraham I. Pressman. Hayden Press. 100n Stored Charge (C) Minimum Trigger Charge (C) Figure 25. Trigger Waveforms and Effect of Varying Trigger Capacitance. Upper trace - Input waveform; lower traces - output at collector, (a) Variable capacitor "C1" below critical value, (b) "C1" at critical value with collector voltage rising to 90% of final value, (c) "C1" above critical value. Horizontal scale=200ns/div, Vertical scale=2V/div. ZTX300, IB=1mA, IC=10mA. 3. Semiconductor Device Technology, section 2.2.26 BJT Modelling - Physical BJT Models, subsection 2) Charge Control BJT Model. Malcolm E. Goodge. MacMillan Press. Characterisation Charts showing typical stored charge as a function of load current and bias level. charge necessary for small signal types ZTX107, ZTX300 and ZTX500, and sw itc hing trans i stors ZTX310 and ZTX510. 100p 2. Pulse, Digital and Switching Waveforms, Chapter 20 - "Transient Switching Characteristics", Millman and Taub. McGraw-Hill Book Company. Appendix C Figure 24. Circuit to Determine Minimum Value of Trigger Charge for Bipolar Transistor. Stored Charge (C) RB Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 IC/I B=50 IC/I B=100 IC/I B=150 IC/I B=200 10n 1n 100p IC/IB=100 IC/IB=150 IC/IB=200 10n 1n 0.1 1 10 IC - Collector Current (A) 0.1 1 10 IC - Collector Current (A) Stored Charge v IC for ZTX968 AN22 - 15 Stored Charge v IC for ZTX1048A Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 +5V Appendix B References To Oscilloscope (References 1, 2 and 3 contain mathematical treatment of charge analysis with respect to switching characteristics of bipolar transistors similar background can be found in most semiconductor physics books). RC C1 1. Switching Transistor Handbook, chapter five - "Transient Characteristics of Transistors" . Motorola Inc., Technical Editor William D. Roehr. Q1 Input 0V a ZTX107 b ZTX300 c ZTX500 1n 10n ZTX869 a b ZTX510 c ZTX949 IC/I B=50 Stored Charge (C) 10n IC/IB=100 IC/I B=150 10n IC/IB=200 IC/IB=50 IC/I B=100 IC/I B=150 1n 100p 1n 0.1 10 1 0.1 IC - Collector Current (A) ZTX310 100n 1m and Switching Transistors Figure 26. Minimum Trigger Charge for Small Signal and Switching Transistors. Forced Gains (IC/IB) of : a)10; b)20; c)40. No significant difference observed for different forced gains on the ZTX310 series. 10 100n ZTX968 10m ZTX1048A IC/I B=50 Stored Charge (C) 10p 100u 1 IC - Collector Current (A) Stored Charge v IC for ZTX949 Stored Charge v IC for ZTX869 IB - Base Current (A) Min. Trigger Charge v IB for Small Signal AN22 - 14 4. Switching and Linear Power Supply, Power Converter Design. Abraham I. Pressman. Hayden Press. 100n Stored Charge (C) Minimum Trigger Charge (C) Figure 25. Trigger Waveforms and Effect of Varying Trigger Capacitance. Upper trace - Input waveform; lower traces - output at collector, (a) Variable capacitor "C1" below critical value, (b) "C1" at critical value with collector voltage rising to 90% of final value, (c) "C1" above critical value. Horizontal scale=200ns/div, Vertical scale=2V/div. ZTX300, IB=1mA, IC=10mA. 3. Semiconductor Device Technology, section 2.2.26 BJT Modelling - Physical BJT Models, subsection 2) Charge Control BJT Model. Malcolm E. Goodge. MacMillan Press. Characterisation Charts showing typical stored charge as a function of load current and bias level. charge necessary for small signal types ZTX107, ZTX300 and ZTX500, and sw itc hing trans i stors ZTX310 and ZTX510. 100p 2. Pulse, Digital and Switching Waveforms, Chapter 20 - "Transient Switching Characteristics", Millman and Taub. McGraw-Hill Book Company. Appendix C Figure 24. Circuit to Determine Minimum Value of Trigger Charge for Bipolar Transistor. Stored Charge (C) RB Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 IC/I B=50 IC/I B=100 IC/I B=150 IC/I B=200 10n 1n 100p IC/IB=100 IC/IB=150 IC/IB=200 10n 1n 0.1 1 10 IC - Collector Current (A) 0.1 1 10 IC - Collector Current (A) Stored Charge v IC for ZTX968 AN22 - 15 Stored Charge v IC for ZTX1048A Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 Application Note 22 Issue 1 May 1996 Appendix C (continued) Stored Charge (C) 10n a ZTX107 b ZTX300 c ZTX500 1n a b ZTX510 c ZTX310 100p 10p 100u 1m Minimum Trigger Charge (C) Forced gains (IC/IB) of a:)10, b)20, C) 40. No significant difference observed for the different forced gains for the ZTX310 series 10m 10n a ZTX107 b ZTX300 c ZTX500 1n a b ZTX510 c ZTX310 100p 10p 100u 10m IB - Base Current (A) Min. Trigger Charge v IB for Small Signal Switching Transistors and Switching Transistors 100n 10n Stored Charge (C) ZTX618 Stored Charge (C) 1m IB - Base Current (A) Stored Charge v IB for Small Signal and IC/IB=50 IC/IB=100 IC/IB=150 IC/IB=200 10n 1n 100p ZTX717 IC/IB=50 IC/IB=100 IC/IB=150 1n IC/IB=200 100p 0.1 1 0.1 10 1 10 IC - Collector Current (A) IC - Collector Current (A) Stored Charge v IC for ZTX618 Stored Charge v IC for ZTX717 10n 100n ZTX718 ZTX849 Stored Charge (C) Stored Charge (C) IC/IB=50 IC/IB=100 IC/IB=150 IC/IB=200 1n 100p IC/IB=50 IC/IB=100 10n IC/IB=150 1n 0.1 1 10 0.1 1 IC - Collector Current (A) IC - Collector Current (A) Stored Charge v IC for ZTX718 Stored Charge v IC for ZTX849 AN22 - 16 10 AN22 - 15