72001-0101 - FLIR Systems, Inc - Datasheet.Directory

User’s manual

FLIR Cx series

User’s manual

FLIR Cx series

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US iii

Table of contents

1 Disclaimers ........................................................................................1

1.1 Legal disclaimer .........................................................................1

1.2 Usage statistics .......................................................................... 1

1.3 Changes to registry .....................................................................1

1.4 U.S. Government Regulations........................................................1

1.5 Copyright ..................................................................................1

1.6 Quality assurance .......................................................................1

1.7 Patents.....................................................................................1

1.8 EULATerms ..............................................................................1

1.9 EULATerms ..............................................................................2

2 Safety information ...............................................................................3

3 Notice to user .....................................................................................7

3.1 User-to-user forums ....................................................................7

3.2 Calibration.................................................................................7

3.3 Accuracy ..................................................................................7

3.4 Disposal of electronic waste ..........................................................7

3.5 Training ....................................................................................7

3.6 Documentation updates ...............................................................7

3.7 Important note about this manual....................................................8

3.8 Note about authoritative versions....................................................8

4 Customer help ....................................................................................9

4.1 General ....................................................................................9

4.2 Submitting a question ..................................................................9

4.3 Downloads .............................................................................. 10

5 Quick Start Guide .............................................................................. 11

5.1 Procedure............................................................................... 11

6 Description.......................................................................................12

6.1 View from the front .................................................................... 12

6.2 View from the rear..................................................................... 12

6.3 Connector............................................................................... 13

6.4 Screen elements ...................................................................... 13

6.5 Auto-orientation........................................................................ 13

6.6 Navigating the menu system ....................................................... 14

7 Operation .........................................................................................15

7.1 Charging the battery.................................................................. 15

7.2 Turning on and turning off the camera............................................ 15

7.3 Saving an image....................................................................... 15

7.3.1 General........................................................................ 15

7.3.2 Image capacity .............................................................. 15

7.3.3 Naming convention......................................................... 15

7.3.4 Procedure .................................................................... 15

7.4 Recalling an image.................................................................... 15

7.4.1 General........................................................................ 15

7.4.2 Procedure .................................................................... 15

7.5 Deleting an image..................................................................... 16

7.5.1 General........................................................................ 16

7.5.2 Procedure .................................................................... 16

7.6 Deleting all images.................................................................... 16

7.6.1 General........................................................................ 16

7.6.2 Procedure .................................................................... 16

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US v

Table of contents

7.7 Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter ................................... 17

7.7.1 General........................................................................ 17

7.8 Hiding measurement tools .......................................................... 17

7.8.1 Procedure .................................................................... 17

7.9 Changing the color palette .......................................................... 17

7.9.1 General........................................................................ 17

7.9.2 Procedure .................................................................... 17

7.10 Changing the image mode .......................................................... 18

7.10.1 General........................................................................ 18

7.10.2 Procedure .................................................................... 19

7.11 Changing the temperature scale mode .......................................... 19

7.11.1 General........................................................................ 19

7.11.2 When to use Lock mode .................................................. 19

7.11.3 Procedure .................................................................... 19

7.12 Setting the emissivity ................................................................. 20

7.12.1 General........................................................................ 20

7.12.2 Procedure .................................................................... 20

7.13 Changing the reflected apparent temperature ................................. 20

7.13.1 General........................................................................ 20

7.13.2 Procedure .................................................................... 20

7.14 Changing the distance ............................................................... 21

7.14.1 General........................................................................ 21

7.14.2 Procedure .................................................................... 21

7.15 Performing a non-uniformity correction .......................................... 21

7.15.1 What is a non-uniformity correction?................................... 21

7.15.2 When to perform a non-uniformity correction ........................ 21

7.15.3 Procedure .................................................................... 21

7.16 Using the camera lamp .............................................................. 22

7.16.1 General........................................................................ 22

7.16.2 Procedure .................................................................... 22

7.17 Configuring Wi-Fi...................................................................... 22

7.17.1 Setting up a peer-to-peer connection (most common

use) ............................................................................ 22

7.17.2 Connecting the camera to a wireless local area network

(less common use) ......................................................... 22

7.18 Changing the settings ................................................................ 23

7.18.1 General........................................................................ 23

7.18.2 Procedure .................................................................... 23

7.19 Updating the camera ................................................................. 24

7.19.1 General........................................................................ 24

7.19.2 Procedure .................................................................... 24

8 Technical data...................................................................................25

8.1 Online field-of-view calculator ...................................................... 25

8.2 Note about technical data ........................................................... 25

8.3 Note about authoritative versions.................................................. 25

8.4 FLIR C2.................................................................................. 26

8.5 FLIR C2 Educational Kit ............................................................. 29

8.6 FLIR C3 (incl. Wi-Fi) .................................................................. 33

8.7 FLIR C3 (incl. Wi-Fi) Educational Kit ............................................. 37

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US vi

Table of contents

9 Mechanical drawings ......................................................................... 41

10 CE Declaration of conformity .............................................................. 45

11 Cleaning the camera .......................................................................... 47

11.1 Camera housing, cables, and other items....................................... 47

11.1.1 Liquids......................................................................... 47

11.1.2 Equipment.................................................................... 47

11.1.3 Procedure .................................................................... 47

11.2 Infrared lens ............................................................................ 47

11.2.1 Liquids......................................................................... 47

11.2.2 Equipment.................................................................... 47

11.2.3 Procedure .................................................................... 47

12 Application examples......................................................................... 49

12.1 Moisture & water damage ........................................................... 49

12.1.1 General........................................................................ 49

12.1.2 Figure.......................................................................... 49

12.2 Faulty contact in socket .............................................................. 49

12.2.1 General........................................................................ 49

12.2.2 Figure.......................................................................... 50

12.3 Oxidized socket........................................................................ 50

12.3.1 General........................................................................ 50

12.3.2 Figure.......................................................................... 50

12.4 Insulation deficiencies................................................................ 51

12.4.1 General........................................................................ 51

12.4.2 Figure.......................................................................... 51

12.5 Draft ...................................................................................... 52

12.5.1 General........................................................................ 52

12.5.2 Figure.......................................................................... 52

13 About FLIR Systems .......................................................................... 54

13.1 More than just an infrared camera ................................................ 55

13.2 Sharing our knowledge .............................................................. 56

13.3 Supporting our customers........................................................... 56

14 Terms, laws, and definitions................................................................ 57

15 Thermographic measurement techniques ............................................ 59

15.1 Introduction ............................................................................ 59

15.2 Emissivity................................................................................ 59

15.2.1 Finding the emissivity of a sample...................................... 59

15.3 Reflected apparent temperature................................................... 63

15.4 Distance ................................................................................. 63

15.5 Relative humidity ...................................................................... 63

15.6 Other parameters...................................................................... 63

16 About calibration............................................................................... 64

16.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 64

16.2 Definition—what is calibration? .................................................... 64

16.3 Camera calibration at FLIR Systems ............................................. 64

16.4 The differences between a calibration performed by a user and

that performed directly at FLIR Systems......................................... 65

16.5 Calibration, verification and adjustment.......................................... 65

16.6 Non-uniformity correction............................................................ 66

16.7 Thermal image adjustment (thermal tuning) .................................... 66

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US vii

Table of contents

17 History of infrared technology............................................................. 67

18 Theory of thermography..................................................................... 70

18.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 70

18.2 The electromagnetic spectrum..................................................... 70

18.3 Blackbody radiation................................................................... 71

18.3.1 Planck’s law .................................................................. 72

18.3.2 Wien’s displacement law.................................................. 73

18.3.3 Stefan-Boltzmann's law ................................................... 74

18.3.4 Non-blackbody emitters................................................... 75

18.4 Infrared semi-transparent materials............................................... 77

19 The measurement formula.................................................................. 78

20 Emissivity tables ............................................................................... 82

20.1 References.............................................................................. 82

20.2 Tables .................................................................................... 82

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US viii

Disclaimers

1.1 Legal disclaimer

All products manufactured by FLIR Systems are warranted against defective

materials and workmanship for a period of one (1) year from the delivery date

of the original purchase, provided such products have been under normal stor-

age, use and service, and in accordance with FLIR Systems instruction.

Uncooled handheld infrared cameras manufactured by FLIR Systems are war-

ranted against defective materials and workmanship for a period of two (2)

years from the delivery date of the original purchase, provided such products

have been under normal storage, use and service, and in accordance with

FLIR Systems instruction, and provided that the camera has been registered

within 60 days of original purchase.

Detectors for uncooled handheld infrared cameras manufactured by FLIR Sys-

tems are warranted against defective materials and workmanship for a period

of ten (10) years from the delivery date of the original purchase, provided such

products have been under normal storage, use and service, and in accordance

with FLIR Systems instruction, and provided that the camera has been regis-

tered within 60 days of original purchase.

Products which are not manufactured by FLIR Systems but included in sys-

tems delivered by FLIR Systems to the original purchaser, carry the warranty, if

any, of the particular supplier only. FLIR Systems has no responsibility whatso-

ever for such products.

The warranty extends only to the original purchaser and is not transferable. It

is not applicable to any product which has been subjected to misuse, neglect,

accident or abnormal conditions of operation. Expendable parts are excluded

from the warranty.

In the case of a defect in a product covered by this warranty the product must

not be further used in order to prevent additional damage. The purchaser shall

promptly report any defect to FLIR Systems or this warranty will not apply.

FLIR Systems will, at its option, repair or replace any such defective product

free of charge if, upon inspection, it proves to be defective in material or work-

manship and provided that it is returned to FLIR Systems within the said one-

year period.

FLIR Systems has no other obligation or liability for defects than those set forth

above.

No other warranty is expressed or implied. FLIR Systems specifically disclaims

the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose.

FLIR Systems shall not be liable for any direct, indirect, special, incidental or

consequential loss or damage, whether based on contract, tort or any other le-

gal theory.

This warranty shall be governed by Swedish law.

Any dispute, controversy or claim arising out of or in connection with this war-

ranty, shall be finally settled by arbitration in accordance with the Rules of the

Arbitration Institute of the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce. The place of ar-

bitration shall be Stockholm. The language to be used in the arbitral proceed-

ings shall be English.

1.2 Usage statistics

FLIR Systems reserves the right to gather anonymous usage statistics to help

maintain and improve the quality of our software and services.

1.3 Changes to registry

The registry entry HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet

\Control\Lsa\LmCompatibilityLevel will be automatically changed to level 2 if

the FLIR Camera Monitor service detects a FLIR camera connected to the

computer with a USB cable. The modification will only be executed if the cam-

era device implements a remote network service that supports network logons.

1.4 U.S. Government Regulations

This product may be subject to U.S. Export Regulations. Please send any in-

quiries to exportquestions@flir.com.

1.5 Copyright

ware including source code may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed or

translated into any language or computer language in any form or by any

means, electronic, magnetic, optical, manual or otherwise, without the prior

written permission of FLIR Systems.

The documentation must not, in whole or part, be copied, photocopied, repro-

duced, translated or transmitted to any electronic medium or machine read-

able form without prior consent, in writing, from FLIR Systems.

Names and marks appearing on the products herein are either registered

trademarks or trademarks of FLIR Systems and/or its subsidiaries. All other

trademarks, trade names or company names referenced herein are used for

identification only and are the property of their respective owners.

1.6 Quality assurance

The Quality Management System under which these products are developed

and manufactured has been certified in accordance with the ISO 9001

standard.

FLIR Systems is committed to a policy of continuous development; therefore

we reserve the right to make changes and improvements on any of the prod-

ucts without prior notice.

1.7 Patents

000439161; 000653423; 000726344; 000859020; 001707738; 001707746;

001707787; 001776519; 001954074; 002021543; 002021543-0002;

002058180; 002249953; 002531178; 002816785; 002816793; 011200326;

014347553; 057692; 061609; 07002405; 100414275; 101796816;

101796817; 101796818; 102334141; 1062100; 11063060001; 11517895;

1226865; 12300216; 12300224; 1285345; 1299699; 1325808; 1336775;

1391114; 1402918; 1404291; 1411581; 1415075; 1421497; 1458284;

1678485; 1732314; 17399650; 1880950; 1886650; 2007301511414;

2007303395047; 2008301285812; 2009301900619; 20100060357;

2010301761271; 2010301761303; 2010301761572; 2010305959313;

2011304423549; 2012304717443; 2012306207318; 2013302676195;

2015202354035; 2015304259171; 204465713; 204967995; 2106017;

2107799; 2115696; 2172004; 2315433; 2381417; 2794760001; 3006596;

3006597; 303330211; 4358936; 483782; 484155; 4889913; 4937897;

4995790001; 5177595; 540838; 579475; 584755; 599392; 60122153;

6020040116815; 602006006500.0; 6020080347796; 6020110003453;

615113; 615116; 664580; 664581; 665004; 665440; 67023029; 6707044;

677298; 68657; 69036179; 70022216; 70028915; 70028923; 70057990;

7034300; 710424; 7110035; 7154093; 7157705; 718801; 723605; 7237946;

7312822; 7332716; 7336823; 734803; 7544944; 7606484; 7634157;

7667198; 7809258; 7826736; 8018649; 8153971; 8212210; 8289372;

8340414; 8354639; 8384783; 8520970; 8565547; 8595689; 8599262;

8654239; 8680468; 8803093; 8823803; 8853631; 8933403; 9171361;

9191583; 9279728; 9280812; 9338352; 9423940; 9471970; 9595087;

D549758.

1.8 EULA Terms

• You have acquired a device (“INFRARED CAMERA”) that includes soft-

ware licensed by FLIR Systems AB from Microsoft Licensing, GP or its af-

filiates (“MS”). Those installed software products of MS origin, as well as

associated media, printed materials, and “online” or electronic documen-

tation (“SOFTWARE”) are protected by international intellectual property

laws and treaties. The SOFTWARE is licensed, not sold. All rights

reserved.

• IF YOU DO NOT AGREE TO THIS END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

(“EULA”), DO NOT USE THE DEVICE OR COPY THE SOFTWARE. IN-

STEAD, PROMPTLY CONTACT FLIR Systems AB FOR INSTRUCTIONS

ON RETURN OF THE UNUSED DEVICE(S) FOR A REFUND. ANY USE

OF THE SOFTWARE, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO USE ON

THE DEVICE, WILL CONSTITUTE YOUR AGREEMENT TO THIS EU-

LA (OR RATIFICATION OF ANY PREVIOUS CONSENT).

•GRANT OF SOFTWARE LICENSE. This EULA grants you the following

license:

◦ You may use the SOFTWARE only on the DEVICE.

◦NOT FAULT TOLERANT. THE SOFTWARE IS NOT FAULT TOLER-

ANT. FLIR Systems AB HAS INDEPENDENTLY DETERMINED

HOW TO USE THE SOFTWARE IN THE DEVICE, AND MS HAS

RELIED UPON FLIR Systems AB TO CONDUCT SUFFICIENT

TESTING TO DETERMINE THAT THE SOFTWARE IS SUITABLE

FOR SUCH USE.

◦NO WARRANTIES FOR THE SOFTWARE. THE SOFTWARE is

provided “AS IS” and with all faults. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO SAT-

ISFACTORY QUALITY, PERFORMANCE, ACCURACY, AND EF-

FORT (INCLUDING LACK OF NEGLIGENCE) IS WITH YOU. ALSO,

THERE IS NO WARRANTY AGAINST INTERFERENCE WITH

YOUR ENJOYMENT OF THE SOFTWARE OR AGAINST IN-

FRINGEMENT. IF YOU HAVE RECEIVED ANY WARRANTIES RE-

GARDING THE DEVICE OR THE SOFTWARE, THOSE

WARRANTIES DO NOT ORIGINATE FROM, AND ARE NOT

BINDING ON, MS.

◦ No Liability for Certain Damages. EXCEPT AS PROHIBITED BY

LAW, MS SHALL HAVE NO LIABILITY FOR ANY INDIRECT, SPE-

CIAL, CONSEQUENTIAL OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES ARISING

FROM OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORM-

ANCE OF THE SOFTWARE. THIS LIMITATION SHALL APPLY

EVEN IF ANY REMEDY FAILS OF ITS ESSENTIAL PURPOSE. IN

NO EVENT SHALL MS BE LIABLE FOR ANY AMOUNT IN EX-

CESS OF U.S. TWO HUNDRED FIFTY DOLLARS (U.S.$250.00).

◦Limitations on Reverse Engineering, Decompilation, and Dis-

assembly. You may not reverse engineer, decompile, or disassem-

ble the SOFTWARE, except and only to the extent that such activity

is expressly permitted by applicable law notwithstanding this

limitation.

◦SOFTWARE TRANSFER ALLOWED BUT WITH RESTRICTIONS.

You may permanently transfer rights under this EULA only as part of

a permanent sale or transfer of the Device, and only if the recipient

agrees to this EULA. If the SOFTWARE is an upgrade, any transfer

must also include all prior versions of the SOFTWARE.

◦EXPORT RESTRICTIONS. You acknowledge that SOFTWARE is

subject to U.S. export jurisdiction. You agree to comply with all appli-

cable international and national laws that apply to the SOFTWARE,

including the U.S. Export Administration Regulations, as well as

end-user, end-use and destination restrictions issued by U.S. and

other governments. For additional information see http://www.micro-

soft.com/exporting/.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 1

Disclaimers1

1.9 EULA Terms

tems AB. This Qt library is a free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify

it under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by

the Free Software Foundation; either version 2.1 of the License, or (at your op-

tion) any later version. This library is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,

but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MER-

CHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU

Lesser General Public License, http://www.gnu.org/licenses/lgpl-2.1.html. The

source code for the libraries Qt4 Core and Qt4 GUI may be requested from

FLIR Systems AB.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 2

Safety information

WARNING

Applicability: Class B digital devices.

This equipment has been tested and found to comply with the limits for a Class B digital device, pursuant

to Part 15 of the FCC Rules. These limits are designed to provide reasonable protection against harmful

interference in a residential installation. This equipment generates, uses and can radiate radio frequency

energy and, if not installed and used in accordance with the instructions, may cause harmful interference

to radio communications. However, there is no guarantee that interference will not occur in a particular in-

stallation. If this equipment does cause harmful interference to radio or television reception, which can be

determined by turning the equipment off and on, the user is encouraged to try to correct the interference

by one or more of the following measures:

• Reorient or relocate the receiving antenna.

• Increase the separation between the equipment and receiver.

• Connect the equipment into an outlet on a circuit different from that to which the receiver is connected.

• Consult the dealer or an experienced radio/TV technician for help.

WARNING

Applicability: Digital devices subject to 15.19/RSS-210.

NOTICE: This device complies with Part 15 of the FCC Rules and with RSS-210 of Industry Canada. Op-

eration is subject to the following two conditions:

1. this device may not cause harmful interference, and

2. this device must accept any interference received, including interference that may cause undesired

operation.

WARNING

Applicability: Digital devices subject to 15.21.

NOTICE: Changes or modifications made to this equipment not expressly approved by FLIR Systems

may void the FCC authorization to operate this equipment.

WARNING

Applicability: Digital devices subject to 2.1091/2.1093/OET Bulletin 65.

Radiofrequency radiation exposure Information: The radiated output power of the device is below

the FCC/IC radio frequency exposure limits. Nevertheless, the device shall be used in such a manner that

the potential for human contact during normal operation is minimized.

WARNING

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not disassemble or do a modification to the battery. The battery contains safety and protection devices

which, if damage occurs, can cause the battery to become hot, or cause an explosion or an ignition.

WARNING

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

If there is a leak from the battery and you get the fluid in your eyes, do not rub your eyes. Flush well with

water and immediately get medical care. The battery fluid can cause injury to your eyes if you do not do

this.

WARNING

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not continue to charge the battery if it does not become charged in the specified charging time. If you

continue to charge the battery, it can become hot and cause an explosion or ignition. Injury to persons

can occur.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 3

Safety information

WARNING

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Only use the correct equipment to remove the electrical power from the battery. If you do not use the cor-

rect equipment, you can decrease the performance or the life cycle of the battery. If you do not use the

correct equipment, an incorrect flow of current to the battery can occur. This can cause the battery to be-

come hot, or cause an explosion. Injury to persons can occur.

WARNING

Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) and warning labels on con-

tainers before you use a liquid. The liquids can be dangerous. Injury to persons can occur.

CAUTION

Do not point the infrared camera (with or without the lens cover) at strong energy sources, for example,

devices that cause laser radiation, or the sun. This can have an unwanted effect on the accuracy of the

camera. It can also cause damage to the detector in the camera.

CAUTION

Do not use the camera in temperatures more than +50°C (+122°F), unless other information is specified

in the user documentation or technical data. High temperatures can cause damage to the camera.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not attach the batteries directly to a car’s cigarette lighter socket, unless FLIR Systems supplies a spe-

cific adapter to connect the batteries to a cigarette lighter socket. Damage to the batteries can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not connect the positive terminal and the negative terminal of the battery to each other with a metal

object (such as wire). Damage to the batteries can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not get water or salt water on the battery, or permit the battery to become wet. Damage to the batteries

can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not make holes in the battery with objects. Damage to the battery can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not hit the battery with a hammer. Damage to the battery can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not put your foot on the battery, hit it or cause shocks to it. Damage to the battery can occur.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 4

Safety information

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not put the batteries in or near a fire, or into direct sunlight. When the battery becomes hot, the built-in

safety equipment becomes energized and can stop the battery charging procedure. If the battery be-

comes hot, damage can occur to the safety equipment and this can cause more heat, damage or ignition

of the battery.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not put the battery on a fire or increase the temperature of the battery with heat. Damage to the battery

and injury to persons can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not put the battery on or near fires, stoves, or other high-temperature locations. Damage to the battery

and injury to persons can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not solder directly onto the battery. Damage to the battery can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not use the battery if, when you use, charge, or put the battery in storage, there is an unusual smell

from the battery, the battery feels hot, changes color, changes shape, or is in an unusual condition. Speak

with your sales office if one or more of these problems occurs. Damage to the battery and injury to per-

sons can occur.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Only use a specified battery charger when you charge the battery. Damage to the battery can occur if you

do not do this.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Only use a specified battery for the camera. Damage to the camera and the battery can occur if you do

not do this.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

The temperature range through which you can charge the battery is 0°C to +45°C (+32°F to +113°F). If

you charge the battery at temperatures out of this range, it can cause the battery to become hot or to

break. It can also decrease the performance or the life cycle of the battery.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 5

Safety information

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

The temperature range through which you can remove the electrical power from the battery is -15°C to

+50°C (+5°F to +122°F), unless other information is specified in the user documentation or technical data.

If you operate the battery out of this temperature range, it can decrease the performance or the life cycle

of the battery.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

When the battery is worn, apply insulation to the terminals with adhesive tape or equivalent materials be-

fore you discard it. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur if you do not do this.

CAUTION

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Remove any water or moisture on the battery before you install it. Damage to the battery can occur if you

do not do this.

CAUTION

Do not apply solvents or equivalent liquids to the camera, the cables, or other items. Damage to the bat-

tery and injury to persons can occur.

CAUTION

Be careful when you clean the infrared lens. The lens has an anti-reflective coating which is easily dam-

aged. Damage to the infrared lens can occur.

CAUTION

Do not use too much force to clean the infrared lens. This can cause damage to the anti-reflective

coating.

Note The encapsulation rating is only applicable when all the openings on the camera

are sealed with their correct covers, hatches, or caps. This includes the compartments for

data storage, batteries, and connectors.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 6

Notice to user

3.1 User-to-user forums

Exchange ideas, problems, and infrared solutions with fellow thermographers around the

world in our user-to-user forums. To go to the forums, visit:

http://forum.infraredtraining.com/

3.2 Calibration

We recommend that you send in the camera for calibration once a year. Contact your local

sales office for instructions on where to send the camera.

3.3 Accuracy

For very accurate results, we recommend that you wait 5 minutes after you have started

the camera before measuring a temperature.

3.4 Disposal of electronic waste

As with most electronic products, this equipment must be disposed of in an environmen-

tally friendly way, and in accordance with existing regulations for electronic waste.

Please contact your FLIR Systems representative for more details.

3.5 Training

To read about infrared training, visit:

• http://www.infraredtraining.com

• http://www.irtraining.com

• http://www.irtraining.eu

3.6 Documentation updates

Our manuals are updated several times per year, and we also issue product-critical notifi-

cations of changes on a regular basis.

To access the latest manuals, translations of manuals, and notifications, go to the Down-

load tab at:

http://support.flir.com

It only takes a few minutes to register online. In the download area you will also find the lat-

est releases of manuals for our other products, as well as manuals for our historical and

obsolete products.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 7

Notice to user3

3.7 Important note about this manual

FLIR Systems issues generic manuals that cover several cameras within a model line.

This means that this manual may contain descriptions and explanations that do not apply

to your particular camera model.

3.8 Note about authoritative versions

The authoritative version of this publication is English. In the event of divergences due to

translation errors, the English text has precedence.

Any late changes are first implemented in English.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 8

Customer help

4.1 General

For customer help, visit:

http://support.flir.com

4.2 Submitting a question

To submit a question to the customer help team, you must be a registered user. It only

takes a few minutes to register online. If you only want to search the knowledgebase for

existing questions and answers, you do not need to be a registered user.

When you want to submit a question, make sure that you have the following information to

hand:

• The camera model

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 9

Customer help

• The camera serial number

• The communication protocol, or method, between the camera and your device (for ex-

ample, SD card reader, HDMI, Ethernet, USB, or FireWire)

• Device type (PC/Mac/iPhone/iPad/Android device, etc.)

• Version of any programs from FLIR Systems

• Full name, publication number, and revision number of the manual

4.3 Downloads

On the customer help site you can also download the following, when applicable for the

product:

• Firmware updates for your infrared camera.

• Program updates for your PC/Mac software.

• Freeware and evaluation versions of PC/Mac software.

• User documentation for current, obsolete, and historical products.

• Mechanical drawings (in *.dxf and *.pdf format).

• Cad data models (in *.stp format).

• Application stories.

• Technical datasheets.

• Product catalogs.

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Quick Start Guide

5.1 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Charge the battery for approximately 1.5 hours, using the FLIR power supply.

2. Push the On/off button to turn on the camera.

3. Aim the camera toward your target of interest.

4. Push the Save button to save an image.

(Optional steps)

5. Download FLIR Tools from http://support.flir.com/tools.

6. Install FLIR Tools on your computer.

7. Start FLIR Tools.

8. Connect the camera to your computer, using the USB cable.

9. Import the images into FLIR Tools.

10. Create a PDF report in FLIR Tools.

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Description

6.1 View from the front

1. Camera lamp.

2. Digital camera lens.

3. Infrared lens.

4. Attachment point.

6.2 View from the rear

1. On/off button.

2. Save button.

3. Camera screen.

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Description6

6.3 Connector

The purpose of this USB Micro-B connector is the following:

• Charging the battery using the FLIR power supply.

• Moving images from the camera to a computer for further analysis in FLIR Tools.

Note Install FLIR Tools on your computer before you move the images.

6.4 Screen elements

1. Main menu toolbar.

2. Submenu toolbar.

3. Result table.

4. Status icons.

5. Temperature scale.

6. Spotmeter.

6.5 Auto-orientation

The camera has an auto-orientation feature, which means that the camera automatically

adjusts the measurement information on the display to the vertical or horizontal position of

the camera.

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Description6

Note The auto-orientation feature is enabled by a setting. Select Settings >Device set-

tings >Auto orientation >On.

6.6 Navigating the menu system

The camera has a touch screen. You can use your index finger or a stylus pen specially

designed for capacitive touch usage to navigate the menu system.

Tap the camera screen to bring up the menu system.

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Operation

7.1 Charging the battery

WARNING

Make sure that you install the socket-outlet near the equipment and that it is easy to get access to.

Follow this procedure:

1. Connect the FLIR power supply to a wall outlet.

2. Connect the power supply cable to the USB connector on the camera.

7.2 Turning on and turning off the camera

• Push the On/off button to turn on the camera.

• Push and hold the On/off button until the screen goes off (for less than 5 sec-

onds) to put the camera in standby mode. The camera then automatically turns off after

2 hours.

• Push and hold the On/off button for more than 5 seconds to turn off the camera.

7.3 Saving an image

7.3.1 General

You can save images to the internal camera memory.

The camera saves both a thermal image and a visual image at the same time.

7.3.2 Image capacity

Approximately 500 images can be saved to the internal camera memory.

7.3.3 Naming convention

The naming convention for images is FLIRxxxx.jpg, where xxxx is a unique counter.

7.3.4 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. To save an image, push the Save button.

7.4 Recalling an image

7.4.1 General

When you save an image, it is stored in the internal camera memory. To display the image

again, you can recall it from the internal camera memory.

7.4.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Images . This displays an image in the image archive.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 15

Operation

3. To view the previous or next image, do one of the following:

• Swipe left or right.

• Tap the left arrow or the right arrow .

4. To switch between a thermal image and a visual image, swipe up or down.

5. Tap the camera screen. This displays a toolbar.

• Select Full screen or Exit full screen to switch between the full screen and

normal views.

• Select Thumbnails to display the thumbnail overview. To scroll between the

thumbnails, swipe up/down. To display an image, tap its thumbnail.

• Select Delete to delete the image.

• Select Information to display information about the image.

• Select Camera to return to live mode.

7.5 Deleting an image

7.5.1 General

You can delete an image from the internal camera memory.

7.5.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Images . This displays an image in the image archive.

3. To display the previous or next image, do one of the following:

• Swipe left or right.

• Tap the left arrow or the right arrow .

4. When the image you want to delete is displayed, tap the camera screen. This displays

a toolbar.

5. On the toolbar, select Delete . This displays a dialog box.

6. In the dialog box, select Delete.

7. To return to live mode, tap the camera screen and select Camera .

7.6 Deleting all images

7.6.1 General

You can delete all images from the internal camera memory.

7.6.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

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Operation

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Settings . This displays a dialog box.

3. In the dialog box, select Device settings. This displays a dialog box.

4. In the dialog box, select Reset options. This displays a dialog box.

5. In the dialog box, select Delete all saved images. This displays a dialog box.

6. In the dialog box, select Delete.

7. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow repeatedly. You can also push the

Save button once.

7.7 Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter

7.7.1 General

You can measure a temperature using a spotmeter. This will display the temperature at the

position of the spotmeter on the screen.

7.7.1.1 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Measurement . This displays a submenu toolbar.

3. On the submenu toolbar, select Center spot .

The temperature at the position of the spotmeter will now be displayed in the top left

corner of the screen.

7.8 Hiding measurement tools

7.8.1 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Measurement . This displays a submenu toolbar.

3. On the submenu toolbar, select No measurements .

7.9 Changing the color palette

7.9.1 General

You can change the color palette that the camera uses to display different temperatures. A

different palette can make it easier to analyze an image.

7.9.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Color . This displays a submenu toolbar.

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Operation

3. On the submenu toolbar, select the type of color palette:

•Iron.

•Rainbow.

•Rainbow HC.

•Gray.

7.10 Changing the image mode

7.10.1 General

The camera captures both thermal and visual images at the same time. By your choice of

image mode, you select which type of image to display on the screen.

The camera supports the following image modes:

•Thermal MSX (Multi Spectral Dynamic Imaging): The camera displays an infrared im-

age where the edges of the objects are enhanced with visual image details.

•Thermal: The camera displays a fully infrared image.

•Digital camera: The camera displays only the visual image captured by the digital

camera.

To display a good fusion image (Thermal MSX mode), the camera must make adjustments

to compensate for the small difference in position between the digital camera lens and the

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 18

Operation

infrared lens. To adjust the image accurately, the camera requires the alignment distance

(i.e., the distance to the object).

7.10.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Image mode . This displays a submenu toolbar.

3. On the submenu toolbar, select one of the following:

•Thermal MSX .

•Thermal .

•Digital camera .

4. If you have selected the Thermal MSX mode, also set the distance to the object by

doing the following:

• On the submenu toolbar, select Alignment distance . This displays a dialog box.

• In the dialog box, select the distance to the object.

7.11 Changing the temperature scale mode

7.11.1 General

The camera can operate in two different temperature scale modes:

•Auto mode: In this mode, the camera is continuously auto-adjusted for the best image

brightness and contrast.

•Lock mode: In this mode, the camera locks the temperature span and the temperature

level.

7.11.2 When to use Lock mode

A typical situation where you would use Lock mode is when looking for temperature

anomalies in two items with a similar design or construction.

For example, you have two cables, and you suspect that one is overheated. With the cam-

era in Auto mode, direct the camera toward the cable that has a normal temperature, and

then activate Lock mode. When you then direct the camera, in Lock mode, toward the sus-

pected overheated cable, that cable will appear in a lighter color in the thermal image if its

temperature is higher than the first cable.

If you instead use Auto mode, the color for the two items might appear the same despite

their temperature being different.

7.11.3 Procedure

To go between Auto mode and Lock mode, tap the top or bottom temperature value in the

temperature scale.

A gray padlock icon indicates that Lock mode is active.

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Operation

7.12 Setting the emissivity

7.12.1 General

To measure temperatures accurately, the camera must be aware of the type of surface you

are measuring. You can choose between the following surface properties:

•Matt.

•Semi-matt.

•Semi-glossy.

As an alternative, you can set a custom emissivity value.

For more information about emissivity, see section 15 Thermographic measurement tech-

niques, page 59.

7.12.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Settings . This displays a dialog box.

3. In the dialog box, select Measurement parameters. This displays a dialog box.

4. In the dialog box, select Emissivity. This displays a dialog box.

5. In the dialog box, select one of the following:

•Matt.

•Semi-matt.

•Semi-glossy.

•Custom value. This displays a dialog box where you can set a value.

6. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow repeatedly. You can also push the

Save button once.

7.13 Changing the reflected apparent

temperature

7.13.1 General

This parameter is used to compensate for the radiation reflected by the object. If the emis-

sivity is low and the object temperature significantly different from that of the reflected tem-

perature, it will be important to set and compensate for the reflected apparent temperature

correctly.

For more information about the reflected apparent temperature, see section 15 Thermo-

graphic measurement techniques, page 59.

7.13.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Settings . This displays a dialog box.

3. In the dialog box, select Measurement parameters. This displays a dialog box.

4. In the dialog box, select Reflected temperature. This displays a dialog box where you

can set a value.

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Operation

5. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow repeatedly. You can also push the

Save button once.

7.14 Changing the distance

7.14.1 General

The distance is the distance between the object and the front lens of the camera. This pa-

rameter is used to compensate for the following two facts:

• That radiation from the target is absorbed by the atmosphere between the object and

the camera.

• That radiation from the atmosphere itself is detected by the camera.

For more information, see section 15 Thermographic measurement techniques, page 59.

7.14.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Settings . This displays a dialog box.

3. In the dialog box, select Measurement parameters. This displays a dialog box.

4. In the dialog box, select Distance. This displays a dialog box where you can set a

value.

5. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow repeatedly. You can also push the

Save button once.

7.15 Performing a non-uniformity correction

7.15.1 What is a non-uniformity correction?

A non-uniformity correction (or NUC) is an image correction carried out by the camera

software to compensate for different sensitivities of detector elements and other optical

and geometrical disturbances1.

7.15.2 When to perform a non-uniformity correction

The non-uniformity correction process should be carried out whenever the output image

becomes spatially noisy. The output can become spatially noisy when the ambient temper-

ature changes (such as from indoors to outdoors operation, and vice versa).

7.15.3 Procedure

To perform a non-uniformity correction, tap and hold the icon. The text Calibrating...

appears on the screen.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 21

1. Definition from the imminent international adoption of DIN 54190-3 (Non-destructive testing – Thermographic

testing – Part 3: Terms and definitions).

Operation

7.16 Using the camera lamp

7.16.1 General

You can use the camera lamp as a flashlight, or as a flash when taking an image.

7.16.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Lamp .

3. Tap one of the following:

•Flash (to use the lamp as a flash when taking an image).

•On (to turn on the lamp and use it as a flashlight).

•Off (to turn off the lamp).

7.17 Configuring Wi-Fi

Depending on your camera configuration, you can connect the camera to a wireless local

area network (WLAN) using Wi-Fi, or let the camera provide Wi-Fi access to another

device.

You can connect the camera in two different ways:

•Most common use: Setting up a peer-to-peer connection (also called an ad hoc or P2P

connection). This method is primarily used with other devices, e.g., an iPhone or iPad.

•Less common use: Connecting the camera to a WLAN.

7.17.1 Setting up a peer-to-peer connection (most common use)

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Settings . This displays a dialog box.

3. Select Device settings.

4. Select Wi-Fi.

5. Select Share.

6. (Optional step.) To display and change the parameters, select Settings.

• To change the channel (the channel that the camera is broadcasting on), select

Channel.

• To activate WEP (encryption algorithm), select WEP. This will check the WEP check

box.

• To change the WEP password, select Password.

Note These parameters are set for your camera’s network. They will be used by the

external device to connect that device to the network.

7.17.2 Connecting the camera to a wireless local area network (less common

use)

Follow this procedure:

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Settings . This displays a dialog box.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 22

Operation

3. Select Device settings.

4. Select Wi-Fi.

5. Select Connect to network.

6. To display a list of the available networks, select Networks.

7. Select one of the available networks.

Password-protected networks are indicated with a padlock icon, and for these you will

need to enter a password.

Note Some networks do not broadcast their existence. To connect to such a network,

select Add network... and set all parameters manually according to that network.

7.18 Changing the settings

7.18.1 General

You can change a variety of settings for the camera.

The Settings menu includes the following:

•Measurement parameters.

•Save options.

•Device settings.

7.18.1.1 Measurement parameters

•Emissivity.

•Reflected temperature.

•Distance.

7.18.1.2 Save options

•Photo as separate JPEG: When this menu command is selected, the digital photograph

from the visual camera is saved at its full field of view as a separate JPEG image. It

may be necessary to activate this option if you are not using the FLIR Tools software.

7.18.1.3 Device settings

•Language, time & units:

◦Language.

◦Temperature unit.

◦Distance unit.

◦Date & time.

◦Date & time format.

•Reset options:

◦Reset default camera mode.

◦Reset device settings to factory default.

◦Delete all saved images.

•Auto power off.

•Auto orientation.

•Display intensity.

•Camera information: This menu command displays various items of information about

the camera, such as the model, serial number, and software version.

7.18.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

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Operation

1. Tap the camera screen. This displays the main menu toolbar.

2. Select Settings . This displays a dialog box.

3. In the dialog box, tap the setting that you want to change.

4. To return to live mode, tap the upper left arrow repeatedly. You can also push the

Save button once.

7.19 Updating the camera

7.19.1 General

To take advantage of our latest camera firmware, it is important that you keep your camera

updated. You update your camera using FLIR Tools.

7.19.2 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Start FLIR Tools.

2. Start the camera.

3. Connect the camera to the computer using the USB cable.

4. FLIR Tools displays a welcome screen when the camera is identified. On the welcome

screen, click Check for updates.

You can also click Check for updates on the Help menu in FLIR Tools.

5. Follow the on-screen instructions.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 24

Technical data

Table of contents

8.1 Online field-of-view calculator............................................................. 25

8.2 Note about technical data................................................................... 25

8.3 Note about authoritative versions........................................................ 25

8.4 FLIR C2 ............................................................................................26

8.5 FLIR C2 Educational Kit...................................................................... 29

8.6 FLIR C3 (incl. Wi-Fi) ........................................................................... 33

8.7 FLIR C3 (incl. Wi-Fi) Educational Kit .................................................... 37

8.1 Online field-of-view calculator

Please visit http://support.flir.com and click the photo of the camera series for field-of-view

tables for all lens–camera combinations.

8.2 Note about technical data

FLIR Systems reserves the right to change specifications at any time without prior notice.

Please check http://support.flir.com for latest changes.

8.3 Note about authoritative versions

The authoritative version of this publication is English. In the event of divergences due to

translation errors, the English text has precedence.

Any late changes are first implemented in English.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 25

Technical data8

8.4 FLIR C2

P/N: 72001-0101

Rev.: 41167

Imaging and optical data

NETD 100 mK

Field of view 41° × 31°

Minimum focus distance • Thermal: 0.15 m (0.49 ft.)

• MSX: 1.0 m (3.3 ft.)

Focal length 1.54 mm (0.061 in.)

Spatial resolution (IFOV) 11 mrad

F-number 1.1

Image frequency 9 Hz

Focus Focus free

Detector data

Focal Plane Array Uncooled microbolometer

Spectral range 7.5–14 µm

Detector pitch 17 µm

IR sensor size 80 × 60

Image presentation

Display (color) • 3.0 in.

• 320 × 240 pixels

Display, aspect ratio 4:3

Auto orientation Yes

Touch screen Yes, capacitive

Image adjustment (alignment calibration) Yes

Image presentation modes

Infrared image Yes

Visual image Yes

MSX Yes

Gallery Yes

Measurement

Object temperature range –10°C to +150°C (14 to 302°F)

Accuracy ±2°C (±3.6°F) or 2%, whichever is greater, at 25°C

(77°F) nominal.

Measurement analysis

Spotmeter On/off

Emissivity correction Yes; matt/semi-matt/semi-glossy + custom value

Measurements correction • Emissivity

• Reflected apparent temperature

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 26

Technical data8

Set-up

Color palettes • Iron

• Rainbow

• Rainbow HC

• Gray

Set-up commands Local adaptation of units, language, date and time

formats

Languages Arabic, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish,

French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japa-

nese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese,

Russian, Simpl. Chinese, Spanish, Swedish, Trad.

Chinese, Turkish.

Lamp

Output power 0.85 W

Field of view 60°

Service functions

Camera software update Using FLIR Tools

Storage of images

Storage media Internal memory store at least 500 sets of images

Image file format • Standard JPEG

• 14-bit measurement data included

Video streaming

Non-radiometric IR video streaming Yes

Visual video streaming Yes

Digital camera

Digital camera 640 × 480 pixels

Digital camera, focus Fixed focus

Data communication interfaces

USB, connector type USB Micro-B: Data transfer to and from PC

USB, standard USB 2.0

Power system

Battery type Rechargeable Li-ion polymer battery

Battery voltage 3.7 V

Battery operating time 2 h

Charging system Charged inside the camera

Charging time 1.5 h

External power operation • AC adapter, 90–260 VAC input

• 5 V output to camera

Power management Automatic shut-down

Environmental data

Operating temperature range –10°C to +50°C (14 to 122°F)

Storage temperature range –40°C to +70°C (–40 to 158°F)

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 27

Technical data8

Environmental data

Humidity (operating and storage) IEC 60068-2-30/24 h 95% relative humidity +25°C

to +40°C (+77°F to +104°F) / 2 cycles

Relative humidity 95% relative humidity +25°C to +40°C (+77°F to

+104°F) non condensing

EMC • WEEE 2012/19/EC

• RoHs 2011/65/EC

• C-Tick

• EN 61000-6-3

• EN 61000-6-2

• FCC 47 CFR Part 15 Class B

Magnetic fields EN 61000-4-8

Battery regulations UL 1642

Encapsulation Camera housing and lens: IP 40 (IEC 60529)

Shock 25 g (IEC 60068-2-27)

Vibration 2 g (IEC 60068-2-6)

Physical data

Weight (incl. Battery) 0.13 kg (0.29 lb.)

Size (L × W × H) 125 × 80 × 24 mm (4.9 × 3.1 × 0.94 in.)

Tripod mounting No

Housing material • PC and ABS, partially covered with TPE

• Aluminum

Color Black and gray

Shipping information

Packaging, type Cardboard box

List of contents • Infrared camera

• Lanyard

• Power supply/charger with EU, UK, US, CN

and Australian plugs

• Printed documentation

• USB cable

Packaging, weight 0.53 kg (1.17 lb.)

Packaging, size 175 × 115 × 75 mm (6.9 × 4.5 × 3.0 in.)

EAN-13 4743254001961

UPC-12 845188010614

Country of origin Estonia

Supplies & accessories:

• T198532; Car charger

• T198534; Power supply USB-micro

• T198533; USB cable Std A <-> Micro B

• T199564; Tripod adapter

• T198584; FLIR Tools

• T198583; FLIR Tools+ (download card incl. license key)

• T199233; FLIR Atlas SDK for .NET

• T199234; FLIR Atlas SDK for MATLAB

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 28

Technical data8

8.5 FLIR C2 Educational Kit

P/N: 72002-0202

Rev.: 41167

NOTE

Only educational institutions are eligible for purchasing this product.

Imaging and optical data

NETD 100 mK

Field of view 41° × 31°

Minimum focus distance • Thermal: 0.15 m (0.49 ft.)

• MSX: 1.0 m (3.3 ft.)

Focal length 1.54 mm (0.061 in.)

Spatial resolution (IFOV) 11 mrad

F-number 1.1

Image frequency 9 Hz

Focus Focus free

Detector data

Focal Plane Array Uncooled microbolometer

Spectral range 7.5–14 µm

Detector pitch 17 µm

IR sensor size 80 × 60

Image presentation

Display (color) • 3.0 in.

• 320 × 240 pixels

Display, aspect ratio 4:3

Auto orientation Yes

Touch screen Yes, capacitive

Image adjustment (alignment calibration) Yes

Image presentation modes

Infrared image Yes

Visual image Yes

MSX Yes

Gallery Yes

Measurement

Object temperature range –10°C to +150°C (14 to 302°F)

Accuracy ±2°C (±3.6°F) or 2%, whichever is greater, at 25°C

(77°F) nominal.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 29

Technical data8

Measurement analysis

Spotmeter On/off

Emissivity correction Yes; matt/semi-matt/semi-glossy + custom value

Measurements correction • Emissivity

• Reflected apparent temperature

Set-up

Color palettes • Iron

• Rainbow

• Rainbow HC

• Gray

Set-up commands Local adaptation of units, language, date and time

formats

Languages Arabic, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish,

French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japa-

nese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese,

Russian, Simpl. Chinese, Spanish, Swedish, Trad.

Chinese, Turkish.

Lamp

Output power 0.85 W

Field of view 60°

Service functions

Camera software update Using FLIR Tools

Storage of images

Storage media Internal memory store at least 500 sets of images

Image file format • Standard JPEG

• 14-bit measurement data included

Video streaming

Non-radiometric IR video streaming Yes

Visual video streaming Yes

Digital camera

Digital camera 640 × 480 pixels

Digital camera, focus Fixed focus

Data communication interfaces

USB, connector type USB Micro-B: Data transfer to and from PC

USB, standard USB 2.0

Power system

Battery type Rechargeable Li-ion polymer battery

Battery voltage 3.7 V

Battery operating time 2 h

Charging system Charged inside the camera

Charging time 1.5 h

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 30

Technical data8

Power system

External power operation • AC adapter, 90–260 VAC input

• 5 V output to camera

Power management Automatic shut-down

Environmental data

Operating temperature range –10°C to +50°C (14 to 122°F)

Storage temperature range –40°C to +70°C (–40 to 158°F)

Humidity (operating and storage) IEC 60068-2-30/24 h 95% relative humidity +25°C

to +40°C (+77°F to +104°F) / 2 cycles

Relative humidity 95% relative humidity +25°C to +40°C (+77°F to

+104°F) non condensing

EMC • WEEE 2012/19/EC

• RoHs 2011/65/EC

• C-Tick

• EN 61000-6-3

• EN 61000-6-2

• FCC 47 CFR Part 15 Class B

Magnetic fields EN 61000-4-8

Battery regulations UL 1642

Encapsulation Camera housing and lens: IP 40 (IEC 60529)

Shock 25 g (IEC 60068-2-27)

Vibration 2 g (IEC 60068-2-6)

Physical data

Weight (incl. Battery) 0.13 kg (0.29 lb.)

Size (L × W × H) 125 × 80 × 24 mm (4.9 × 3.1 × 0.94 in.)

Tripod mounting Yes

Housing material • PC and ABS, partially covered with TPE

• Aluminum

Color Black and gray

Shipping information

Packaging, type Cardboard box

List of contents • Infrared camera

• Lanyard

• Power supply/charger with EU, UK, US, CN

and Australian plugs

• Printed documentation

• Tripod mount

• FLIR C2 educational kit card with download

links for FLIR Tools+, FLIR ResearchIR Stand-

ard (incl. printed license key), and educational

resources.

• USB cable

Packaging, weight 0.53 kg (1.17 lb.)

Packaging, size 175 × 115 × 75 mm (6.9 × 4.5 × 3.0 in.)

EAN-13 4743254002067

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 31

Technical data8

Shipping information

UPC-12 845188011376

Country of origin Estonia

Supplies & accessories:

• T198532; Car charger

• T198534; Power supply USB-micro

• T198533; USB cable Std A <-> Micro B

• T199564; Tripod adapter

• T198584; FLIR Tools

• T198583; FLIR Tools+ (download card incl. license key)

• T199012; FLIR ResearchIR Standard 4 (printed license key)

• T199233; FLIR Atlas SDK for .NET

• T199234; FLIR Atlas SDK for MATLAB

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 32

Technical data8

8.6 FLIR C3 (incl. Wi-Fi)

P/N: 72003-0303

Rev.: 41167

Imaging and optical data

NETD 100 mK

Field of view 41° × 31°

Minimum focus distance • Thermal: 0.15 m (0.49 ft.)

• MSX: 1.0 m (3.3 ft.)

Focal length 1.54 mm (0.061 in.)

Spatial resolution (IFOV) 11 mrad

F-number 1.1

Image frequency 9 Hz

Focus Focus free

Detector data

Focal Plane Array Uncooled microbolometer

Spectral range 7.5–14 µm

Detector pitch 17 µm

IR sensor size 80 × 60

Image presentation

Display (color) • 3.0 in.

• 320 × 240 pixels

Display, aspect ratio 4:3

Auto orientation Yes

Touch screen Yes, capacitive

Image adjustment (alignment calibration) Yes

Image presentation modes

Infrared image Yes

Visual image Yes

MSX Yes

Gallery Yes

Picture in Picture IR area on visual image

Measurement

Object temperature range –10°C to +150°C (14 to 302°F)

Accuracy ±2°C (±3.6°F) or 2%, whichever is greater, at 25°C

(77°F) nominal.

Measurement analysis

Spotmeter On/off

Area Box with max./min.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 33

Technical data8

Measurement analysis

Emissivity correction Yes; matt/semi-matt/semi-glossy + custom value

Measurements correction • Emissivity

• Reflected apparent temperature

Set-up

Color palettes • Iron

• Rainbow

• Rainbow HC

• Gray

Set-up commands Local adaptation of units, language, date and time

formats

Languages Arabic, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish,

French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japa-

nese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese,

Russian, Simpl. Chinese, Spanish, Swedish, Trad.

Chinese, Turkish.

Lamp

Output power 0.85 W

Field of view 60°

Service functions

Camera software update Using FLIR Tools

Storage of images

Storage media Internal memory store at least 500 sets of images

Image file format • Standard JPEG

• 14-bit measurement data included

Video streaming

Non-radiometric IR video streaming Yes

Visual video streaming Yes

Digital camera

Digital camera 640 × 480 pixels

Digital camera, focus Fixed focus

Data communication interfaces

Wi-Fi Peer-to-peer (ad hoc) or infrastructure (network)

USB, connector type USB Micro-B: Data transfer to and from PC

USB, standard USB 2.0

Radio

Wi-Fi • Standard: 802.11 b/g/n

• Frequency range:

◦ 2400–2480 MHz

◦ 5150–5260 MHz

• Max. output power: 15 dBm

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 34

Technical data8

Power system

Battery type Rechargeable Li-ion polymer battery

Battery voltage 3.7 V

Battery operating time 2 h

Charging system Charged inside the camera

Charging time 1.5 h

External power operation • AC adapter, 90–260 VAC input

• 5 V output to camera

Power management Automatic shut-down

Environmental data

Operating temperature range –10°C to +50°C (14 to 122°F)

Storage temperature range –40°C to +70°C (–40 to 158°F)

Humidity (operating and storage) IEC 60068-2-30/24 h 95% relative humidity +25°C

to +40°C (+77°F to +104°F) / 2 cycles

Relative humidity 95% relative humidity +25°C to +40°C (+77°F to

+104°F) non condensing

EMC • WEEE 2012/19/EC

• RoHs 2011/65/EC

• C-Tick

• EN 61000-6-3

• EN 61000-6-2

• FCC 47 CFR Part 15 Class B

Radio spectrum • ETSI EN 300 328

• FCC 47 CSR Part 15

• RSS-247 Issue 1

Magnetic fields EN 61000-4-8

Battery regulations UL 1642

Encapsulation Camera housing and lens: IP 40 (IEC 60529)

Shock 25 g (IEC 60068-2-27)

Vibration 2 g (IEC 60068-2-6)

Drop 2 m (6.6 ft.)

Physical data

Weight (incl. Battery) 0.13 kg (0.29 lb.)

Size (L × W × H) 125 × 80 × 24 mm (4.9 × 3.1 × 0.94 in.)

Tripod mounting No

Housing material • PC and ABS, partially covered with TPE

• Aluminum

Color Black and gray

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 35

Technical data8

Shipping information

Packaging, type Cardboard box

List of contents • Infrared camera

• Lanyard

• Pouch

• Power supply/charger with EU, UK, US, CN

and Australian plugs

• Printed documentation

• Tripod mount

• USB cable

Packaging, weight TBD

Packaging, size 175 × 110 × 105 mm (6.9 × 4.3 × 4.1 in.)

EAN-13 4743254002845

UPC-12 845188014094

Country of origin Estonia

Supplies & accessories:

• T198532; Car charger

• T198534; Power supply USB-micro

• T198533; USB cable Std A <-> Micro B

• T199564; Tripod adapter

• T198584; FLIR Tools

• T198583; FLIR Tools+ (download card incl. license key)

• T199233; FLIR Atlas SDK for .NET

• T199234; FLIR Atlas SDK for MATLAB

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 36

Technical data8

8.7 FLIR C3 (incl. Wi-Fi) Educational Kit

P/N: 72003-0404

Rev.: 41167

NOTE

Only educational institutions are eligible for purchasing this product.

Imaging and optical data

NETD 100 mK

Field of view 41° × 31°

Minimum focus distance • Thermal: 0.15 m (0.49 ft.)

• MSX: 1.0 m (3.3 ft.)

Focal length 1.54 mm (0.061 in.)

Spatial resolution (IFOV) 11 mrad

F-number 1.1

Image frequency 9 Hz

Focus Focus free

Detector data

Focal Plane Array Uncooled microbolometer

Spectral range 7.5–14 µm

Detector pitch 17 µm

IR sensor size 80 × 60

Image presentation

Display (color) • 3.0 in.

• 320 × 240 pixels

Display, aspect ratio 4:3

Auto orientation Yes

Touch screen Yes, capacitive

Image adjustment (alignment calibration) Yes

Image presentation modes

Infrared image Yes

Visual image Yes

MSX Yes

Gallery Yes

Picture in Picture IR area on visual image

Measurement

Object temperature range –10°C to +150°C (14 to 302°F)

Accuracy ±2°C (±3.6°F) or 2%, whichever is greater, at 25°C

(77°F) nominal.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 37

Technical data8

Measurement analysis

Spotmeter On/off

Area Box with max./min.

Emissivity correction Yes; matt/semi-matt/semi-glossy + custom value

Measurements correction • Emissivity

• Reflected apparent temperature

Set-up

Color palettes • Iron

• Rainbow

• Rainbow HC

• Gray

Set-up commands Local adaptation of units, language, date and time

formats

Languages Arabic, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish,

French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japa-

nese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese,

Russian, Simpl. Chinese, Spanish, Swedish, Trad.

Chinese, Turkish.

Lamp

Output power 0.85 W

Field of view 60°

Service functions

Camera software update Using FLIR Tools

Storage of images

Storage media Internal memory store at least 500 sets of images

Image file format • Standard JPEG

• 14-bit measurement data included

Video streaming

Non-radiometric IR video streaming Yes

Visual video streaming Yes

Digital camera

Digital camera 640 × 480 pixels

Digital camera, focus Fixed focus

Data communication interfaces

Wi-Fi Peer-to-peer (ad hoc) or infrastructure (network)

USB, connector type USB Micro-B: Data transfer to and from PC

USB, standard USB 2.0

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 38

Technical data8

Radio

Wi-Fi • Standard: 802.11 b/g/n

• Frequency range:

◦ 2400–2480 MHz

◦ 5150–5260 MHz

• Max. output power: 15 dBm

Power system

Battery type Rechargeable Li-ion polymer battery

Battery voltage 3.7 V

Battery operating time 2 h

Charging system Charged inside the camera

Charging time 1.5 h

External power operation • AC adapter, 90–260 VAC input

• 5 V output to camera

Power management Automatic shut-down

Environmental data

Operating temperature range –10°C to +50°C (14 to 122°F)

Storage temperature range –40°C to +70°C (–40 to 158°F)

Humidity (operating and storage) IEC 60068-2-30/24 h 95% relative humidity +25°C

to +40°C (+77°F to +104°F) / 2 cycles

Relative humidity 95% relative humidity +25°C to +40°C (+77°F to

+104°F) non condensing

EMC • WEEE 2012/19/EC

• RoHs 2011/65/EC

• C-Tick

• EN 61000-6-3

• EN 61000-6-2

• FCC 47 CFR Part 15 Class B

Radio spectrum • ETSI EN 300 328

• FCC 47 CSR Part 15

• RSS-247 Issue 1

Magnetic fields EN 61000-4-8

Battery regulations UL 1642

Encapsulation Camera housing and lens: IP 40 (IEC 60529)

Shock 25 g (IEC 60068-2-27)

Vibration 2 g (IEC 60068-2-6)

Drop 2 m (6.6 ft.)

Physical data

Weight (incl. Battery) 0.13 kg (0.29 lb.)

Size (L × W × H) 125 × 80 × 24 mm (4.9 × 3.1 × 0.94 in.)

Tripod mounting No

Housing material • PC and ABS, partially covered with TPE

• Aluminum

Color Black and gray

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 39

Technical data8

Shipping information

Packaging, type Cardboard box

List of contents • FLIR C3 educational kit card with download

links for FLIR Tools+, FLIR ResearchIR Stand-

ard (incl. printed license key), and educational

resources.

• Infrared camera

• Lanyard

• Pouch

• Power supply/charger with EU, UK, US, CN

and Australian plugs

• Printed documentation

• Tripod mount

• USB cable

Packaging, weight TBD

Packaging, size 175 × 110 × 105 mm (6.9 × 4.3 × 4.1 in.)

EAN-13 4743254002852

UPC-12 845188014100

Country of origin Estonia

Supplies & accessories:

• T198532; Car charger

• T198534; Power supply USB-micro

• T198533; USB cable Std A <-> Micro B

• T199564; Tripod adapter

• T198584; FLIR Tools

• T198583; FLIR Tools+ (download card incl. license key)

• T199233; FLIR Atlas SDK for .NET

• T199234; FLIR Atlas SDK for MATLAB

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 40

Mechanical drawings

[See next page]

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 41

3,1

78,7

4,91

124,6

1,02

25,9

Optical axis

1,78

45,3

0,43

1,31

33,4

0,91

23,1

0,58

14,8

Camera with build-in IR lens f=1,54mm

Visual Optical axis

IR Optical axis

12345678910

1 632 54

Scale

1:1

Size

Modified

R&D Thermography

AKZE

Basic Dimensions Flir Cx

T128439

1(2)

Denomination

Drawn by

Check

Size

Drawing No.

Sheet

© 2012, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide. No part of this drawing may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,

without written permission from FLIR Systems, Inc. Specifications subject to change without further notice. Dimensional data is based on nominal values. Products may be subject to regional market considerations. License procedures may apply.

Product may be subject to US Export Regulations. Please refer to exportquestions@flir.com with any questions. Diversion contrary to US law is prohibited.

2017-02-17

3,49

88,6

2,17

55,2

1,59

40,5

0,43

Tripod UNC 1/4'' - 20

IR Optical axis

Visual Optical axis

1,39

35,4

12345678910

1 632 54

Scale

1:1

Rev

Modified

R&D Instruments

AKZE

Basic Dimensions Flir Cx

T128439

2(2)

Denomination

Drawn by

Check

Size

Drawing No.

Sheet

Product may be subject to US Export Regulations. Please refer to exportquestions@flir.com with any questions. Diversion contrary to US law is prohibited.

2017-02-17

0,77in

19,5mm

3,12in

79,2mm

1,56in

39,6mm

1,21in

30,8mm

0,3in

7,5mm

Tripod UNC 1/4'' - 20

Sheet

Drawing No.

Size

Check

Drawn by

Denomination

1(1)

T130244

Basic Dimension Tripod Cx

AKZE

2017-02-16

R&D Instruments

Modified

12345678910

1 32 54

Rev

1:1

Scale

© 2016, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide. No part of this drawing may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,

Product may be subject to US Export Regulations. Please refer to exportquestions@flir.com with any questions. Diversion contrary to US law is prohibited.

CE Declaration of conformity

[See next page]

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 45

Cleaning the camera

11.1 Camera housing, cables, and other items

11.1.1 Liquids

Use one of these liquids:

• Warm water

• A weak detergent solution

11.1.2 Equipment

A soft cloth

11.1.3 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Soak the cloth in the liquid.

2. Twist the cloth to remove excess liquid.

3. Clean the part with the cloth.

CAUTION

Do not apply solvents or similar liquids to the camera, the cables, or other items. This can cause damage.

11.2 Infrared lens

11.2.1 Liquids

Use one of these liquids:

• A commercial lens cleaning liquid with more than 30% isopropyl alcohol.

• 96% ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH).

11.2.2 Equipment

Cotton wool

CAUTION

If you use a lens cleaning cloth it must be dry. Do not use a lens cleaning cloth with the liquids that are giv-

en in section 11.2.1 above. These liquids can cause material on the lens cleaning cloth to become loose.

This material can have an unwanted effect on the surface of the lens.

11.2.3 Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Soak the cotton wool in the liquid.

2. Twist the cotton wool to remove excess liquid.

3. Clean the lens one time only and discard the cotton wool.

WARNING

Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) and warning labels on con-

tainers before you use a liquid: the liquids can be dangerous.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 47

Cleaning the camera

CAUTION

• Be careful when you clean the infrared lens. The lens has a delicate anti-reflective coating.

• Do not clean the infrared lens too vigorously. This can damage the anti-reflective coating.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 48

Application examples

12.1 Moisture & water damage

12.1.1 General

It is often possible to detect moisture and water damage in a house by using an infrared

camera. This is partly because the damaged area has a different heat conduction property

and partly because it has a different thermal capacity to store heat than the surrounding

material.

Many factors can come into play as to how moisture or water damage will appear in an in-

frared image.

For example, heating and cooling of these parts takes place at different rates depending

on the material and the time of day. For this reason, it is important that other methods are

used as well to check for moisture or water damage.

12.1.2 Figure

The image below shows extensive water damage on an external wall where the water has

penetrated the outer facing because of an incorrectly installed window ledge.

12.2 Faulty contact in socket

12.2.1 General

Depending on the type of connection a socket has, an improperly connected wire can re-

sult in local temperature increase. This temperature increase is caused by the reduced

contact area between the connection point of the incoming wire and the socket , and can

result in an electrical fire.

A socket’s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another. For this

reason, different faults in a socket can lead to the same typical appearance in an infrared

image.

Local temperature increase can also result from improper contact between wire and sock-

et, or from difference in load.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 49

Application examples12

12.2.2 Figure

The image below shows a connection of a cable to a socket where improper contact in the

connection has resulted in local temperature increase.

12.3 Oxidized socket

12.3.1 General

Depending on the type of socket and the environment in which the socket is installed, ox-

ides may occur on the socket's contact surfaces. These oxides can lead to locally in-

creased resistance when the socket is loaded, which can be seen in an infrared image as

local temperature increase.

A socket’s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another. For this

reason, different faults in a socket can lead to the same typical appearance in an infrared

image.

Local temperature increase can also result from improper contact between a wire and

socket, or from difference in load.

12.3.2 Figure

The image below shows a series of fuses where one fuse has a raised temperature on the

contact surfaces against the fuse holder. Because of the fuse holder’s blank metal, the

temperature increase is not visible there, while it is visible on the fuse’s ceramic material.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 50

Application examples12

12.4 Insulation deficiencies

12.4.1 General

Insulation deficiencies may result from insulation losing volume over the course of time

and thereby not entirely filling the cavity in a frame wall.

An infrared camera allows you to see these insulation deficiencies because they either

have a different heat conduction property than sections with correctly installed insulation,

and/or show the area where air is penetrating the frame of the building.

When you are inspecting a building, the temperature difference between the inside and

outside should be at least 10°C (18°F). Studs, water pipes, concrete columns, and similar

components may resemble an insulation deficiency in an infrared image. Minor differences

may also occur naturally.

12.4.2 Figure

In the image below, insulation in the roof framing is lacking. Due to the absence of insula-

tion, air has forced its way into the roof structure, which thus takes on a different character-

istic appearance in the infrared image.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 51

Application examples12

12.5 Draft

12.5.1 General

Draft can be found under baseboards, around door and window casings, and above ceil-

ing trim. This type of draft is often possible to see with an infrared camera, as a cooler air-

stream cools down the surrounding surface.

When you are investigating draft in a house, there should be sub-atmospheric pressure in

the house. Close all doors, windows, and ventilation ducts, and allow the kitchen fan to run

for a while before you take the infrared images.

An infrared image of draft often shows a typical stream pattern. You can see this stream

pattern clearly in the picture below.

Also keep in mind that drafts can be concealed by heat from floor heating circuits.

12.5.2 Figure

The image below shows a ceiling hatch where faulty installation has resulted in a strong

draft.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 52

Application examples12

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 53

About FLIR Systems

FLIR Systems was established in 1978 to pioneer the development of high-performance

infrared imaging systems, and is the world leader in the design, manufacture, and market-

ing of thermal imaging systems for a wide variety of commercial, industrial, and govern-

ment applications. Today, FLIR Systems embraces five major companies with outstanding

achievements in infrared technology since 1958—the Swedish AGEMA Infrared Systems

(formerly AGA Infrared Systems), the three United States companies Indigo Systems, FSI,

and Inframetrics, and the French company Cedip.

Since 2007, FLIR Systems has acquired several companies with world-leading expertise

in sensor technologies:

• Extech Instruments (2007)

• Ifara Tecnologías (2008)

• Salvador Imaging (2009)

• OmniTech Partners (2009)

• Directed Perception (2009)

• Raymarine (2010)

• ICx Technologies (2010)

• TackTick Marine Digital Instruments (2011)

• Aerius Photonics (2011)

• Lorex Technology (2012)

• Traficon (2012)

• MARSS (2013)

• DigitalOptics micro-optics business (2013)

• DVTEL (2015)

• Point Grey Research (2016)

• Prox Dynamics (2016)

Figure 13.1 Patent documents from the early 1960s

FLIR Systems has three manufacturing plants in the United States (Portland, OR, Boston,

MA, Santa Barbara, CA) and one in Sweden (Stockholm). Since 2007 there is also a

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 54

About FLIR Systems

manufacturing plant in Tallinn, Estonia. Direct sales offices in Belgium, Brazil, China,

France, Germany, Great Britain, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Korea, Sweden, and the USA—

together with a worldwide network of agents and distributors—support our international

customer base.

FLIR Systems is at the forefront of innovation in the infrared camera industry. We antici-

pate market demand by constantly improving our existing cameras and developing new

ones. The company has set milestones in product design and development such as the in-

troduction of the first battery-operated portable camera for industrial inspections, and the

first uncooled infrared camera, to mention just two innovations.

Figure 13.2 1969: Thermovision Model 661. The

camera weighed approximately 25 kg (55 lb.), the

oscilloscope 20 kg (44 lb.), and the tripod 15 kg

(33 lb.). The operator also needed a 220 VAC gen-

erator set, and a 10 L (2.6 US gallon) jar with liquid

nitrogen. To the left of the oscilloscope the Polaroid

attachment (6 kg/13 lb.) can be seen.

Figure 13.3 2015: FLIR One, an accessory to

iPhone and Android mobile phones. Weight: 90 g

(3.2 oz.).

FLIR Systems manufactures all vital mechanical and electronic components of the camera

systems itself. From detector design and manufacturing, to lenses and system electronics,

to final testing and calibration, all production steps are carried out and supervised by our

own engineers. The in-depth expertise of these infrared specialists ensures the accuracy

and reliability of all vital components that are assembled into your infrared camera.

13.1 More than just an infrared camera

At FLIR Systems we recognize that our job is to go beyond just producing the best infrared

camera systems. We are committed to enabling all users of our infrared camera systems

to work more productively by providing them with the most powerful camera–software

combination. Especially tailored software for predictive maintenance, R & D, and process

monitoring is developed in-house. Most software is available in a wide variety of

languages.

We support all our infrared cameras with a wide variety of accessories to adapt your equip-

ment to the most demanding infrared applications.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 55

About FLIR Systems

13.2 Sharing our knowledge

Although our cameras are designed to be very user-friendly, there is a lot more to thermog-

raphy than just knowing how to handle a camera. Therefore, FLIR Systems has founded

the Infrared Training Center (ITC), a separate business unit, that provides certified training

courses. Attending one of the ITC courses will give you a truly hands-on learning

experience.

The staff of the ITC are also there to provide you with any application support you may

need in putting infrared theory into practice.

13.3 Supporting our customers

FLIR Systems operates a worldwide service network to keep your camera running at all

times. If you discover a problem with your camera, local service centers have all the equip-

ment and expertise to solve it within the shortest possible time. Therefore, there is no need

to send your camera to the other side of the world or to talk to someone who does not

speak your language.

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 56

Terms, laws, and definitions

Term Definition

Absorption and emission2The capacity or ability of an object to absorb incident radiated

energy is always the same as the capacity to emit its own en-

ergy as radiation

Apparent temperature uncompensated reading from an infrared instrument, contain-

ing all radiation incident on the instrument, regardless of its

sources3

Color palette assigns different colors to indicate specific levels of apparent

temperature. Palettes can provide high or low contrast, de-

pending on the colors used in them

Conduction direct transfer of thermal energy from molecule to molecule,

caused by collisions between the molecules

Convection heat transfer mode where a fluid is brought into motion, either

by gravity or another force, thereby transferring heat from one

place to another

Diagnostics examination of symptoms and syndromes to determine the

nature of faults or failures4

Direction of heat transfer5Heat will spontaneously flow from hotter to colder, thereby

transferring thermal energy from one place to another6

Emissivity ratio of the power radiated by real bodies to the power that is

radiated by a blackbody at the same temperature and at the

same wavelength7

Energy conservation8The sum of the total energy contents in a closed system is

constant

Exitant radiation radiation that leaves the surface of an object, regardless of its

original sources

Heat thermal energy that is transferred between two objects (sys-

tems) due to their difference in temperature

Heat transfer rate9The heat transfer rate under steady state conditions is directly

proportional to the thermal conductivity of the object, the

cross-sectional area of the object through which the heat

flows, and the temperature difference between the two ends

of the object. It is inversely proportional to the length, or thick-

ness, of the object10

Incident radiation radiation that strikes an object from its surroundings

IR thermography process of acquisition and analysis of thermal information

from non-contact thermal imaging devices

Isotherm replaces certain colors in the scale with a contrasting color. It

marks an interval of equal apparent temperature11

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 57

2. Kirchhoff’s law of thermal radiation.

3. Based on ISO 18434-1:2008 (en).

4. Based on ISO 13372:2004 (en).

5. 2nd law of thermodynamics.

6. This is a consequence of the 2nd law of thermodynamics, the law itself is more complicated.

7. Based on ISO 16714-3:2016 (en).

8. 1st law of thermodynamics.

9. Fourier’s law.

10.This is the one-dimensional form of Fourier’s law, valid for steady-state conditions.

11.Based on ISO 18434-1:2008 (en)

Terms, laws, and definitions

Term Definition

Qualitative thermography thermography that relies on the analysis of thermal patterns to

reveal the existence of and to locate the position of

anomalies12

Quantitative thermography thermography that uses temperature measurement to deter-

mine the seriousness of an anomaly, in order to establish re-

pair priorities12

Radiative heat transfer Heat transfer by the emission and absorption of thermal

radiation

Reflected apparent temperature apparent temperature of the environment that is reflected by

the target into the IR camera13

Spatial resolution ability of an IR camera to resolve small objects or details

Temperature measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules and

atoms that make up the substance

Thermal energy total kinetic energy of the molecules that make up the object14

Thermal gradient gradual change in temperature over distance13

Thermal tuning process of putting the colors of the image on the object of

analysis, in order to maximize contrast

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 58

12.Based on ISO 10878-2013 (en).

13.Based on ISO 16714-3:2016 (en).

14.Thermal energy is part of the internal energy of an object.

Thermographic measurement

techniques

15.1 Introduction

An infrared camera measures and images the emitted infrared radiation from an object.

The fact that radiation is a function of object surface temperature makes it possible for the

camera to calculate and display this temperature.

However, the radiation measured by the camera does not only depend on the temperature

of the object but is also a function of the emissivity. Radiation also originates from the sur-

roundings and is reflected in the object. The radiation from the object and the reflected ra-

diation will also be influenced by the absorption of the atmosphere.

To measure temperature accurately, it is therefore necessary to compensate for the effects

of a number of different radiation sources. This is done on-line automatically by the cam-

era. The following object parameters must, however, be supplied for the camera:

• The emissivity of the object

• The reflected apparent temperature

• The distance between the object and the camera

• The relative humidity

• Temperature of the atmosphere

15.2 Emissivity

The most important object parameter to set correctly is the emissivity which, in short, is a

measure of how much radiation is emitted from the object, compared to that from a perfect

blackbody of the same temperature.

Normally, object materials and surface treatments exhibit emissivity ranging from approxi-

mately 0.1 to 0.95. A highly polished (mirror) surface falls below 0.1, while an oxidized or

painted surface has a higher emissivity. Oil-based paint, regardless of color in the visible

spectrum, has an emissivity over 0.9 in the infrared. Human skin exhibits an emissivity

0.97 to 0.98.

Non-oxidized metals represent an extreme case of perfect opacity and high reflexivity,

which does not vary greatly with wavelength. Consequently, the emissivity of metals is low

– only increasing with temperature. For non-metals, emissivity tends to be high, and de-

creases with temperature.

15.2.1 Finding the emissivity of a sample

15.2.1.1 Step 1: Determining reflected apparent temperature

Use one of the following two methods to determine reflected apparent temperature:

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Thermographic measurement techniques15

15.2.1.1.1 Method 1: Direct method

Follow this procedure:

1. Look for possible reflection sources, considering that the incident angle = reflection an-

gle (a = b).

Figure 15.1 1 = Reflection source

2. If the reflection source is a spot source, modify the source by obstructing it using a

piece if cardboard.

Figure 15.2 1 = Reflection source

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Thermographic measurement techniques15

3. Measure the radiation intensity (= apparent temperature) from the reflection source us-

ing the following settings:

• Emissivity: 1.0

• Dobj: 0

You can measure the radiation intensity using one of the following two methods:

Figure 15.3 1 = Reflection source Figure 15.4 1 = Reflection source

You can not use a thermocouple to measure reflected apparent temperature, because a

thermocouple measures temperature, but apparent temperatrure is radiation intensity.

15.2.1.1.2 Method 2: Reflector method

Follow this procedure:

1. Crumble up a large piece of aluminum foil.

2. Uncrumble the aluminum foil and attach it to a piece of cardboard of the same size.

3. Put the piece of cardboard in front of the object you want to measure. Make sure that

the side with aluminum foil points to the camera.

4. Set the emissivity to 1.0.

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Thermographic measurement techniques15

5. Measure the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil and write it down. The foil is

considered a perfect reflector, so its apparent temperature equals the reflected appa-

rent temperature from the surroundings.

Figure 15.5 Measuring the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil.

15.2.1.2 Step 2: Determining the emissivity

Follow this procedure:

1. Select a place to put the sample.

2. Determine and set reflected apparent temperature according to the previous

procedure.

3. Put a piece of electrical tape with known high emissivity on the sample.

4. Heat the sample at least 20 K above room temperature. Heating must be reasonably

even.

5. Focus and auto-adjust the camera, and freeze the image.

6. Adjust Level and Span for best image brightness and contrast.

7. Set emissivity to that of the tape (usually 0.97).

8. Measure the temperature of the tape using one of the following measurement

functions:

•Isotherm (helps you to determine both the temperature and how evenly you have

heated the sample)

•Spot (simpler)

•Box Avg (good for surfaces with varying emissivity).

9. Write down the temperature.

10. Move your measurement function to the sample surface.

11. Change the emissivity setting until you read the same temperature as your previous

measurement.

12. Write down the emissivity.

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Thermographic measurement techniques15

Note

• Avoid forced convection

• Look for a thermally stable surrounding that will not generate spot reflections

• Use high quality tape that you know is not transparent, and has a high emissivity you

are certain of

• This method assumes that the temperature of your tape and the sample surface are the

same. If they are not, your emissivity measurement will be wrong.

15.3 Reflected apparent temperature

This parameter is used to compensate for the radiation reflected in the object. If the emis-

sivity is low and the object temperature relatively far from that of the reflected it will be im-

portant to set and compensate for the reflected apparent temperature correctly.

15.4 Distance

The distance is the distance between the object and the front lens of the camera. This pa-

rameter is used to compensate for the following two facts:

• That radiation from the target is absorbed by the atmosphere between the object and

the camera.

• That radiation from the atmosphere itself is detected by the camera.

15.5 Relative humidity

The camera can also compensate for the fact that the transmittance is also dependent on

the relative humidity of the atmosphere. To do this set the relative humidity to the correct

value. For short distances and normal humidity the relative humidity can normally be left at

a default value of 50%.

15.6 Other parameters

In addition, some cameras and analysis programs from FLIR Systems allow you to com-

pensate for the following parameters:

• Atmospheric temperature – i.e. the temperature of the atmosphere between the camera

and the target

• External optics temperature – i.e. the temperature of any external lenses or windows

used in front of the camera

• External optics transmittance – i.e. the transmission of any external lenses or windows

used in front of the camera

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About calibration

16.1 Introduction

Calibration of a thermal camera is a prerequisite for temperature measurement. The cali-

bration provides the relationship between the input signal and the physical quantity that

the user wants to measure. However, despite its widespread and frequent use, the term

“calibration” is often misunderstood and misused. Local and national differences as well

as translation-related issues create additional confusion.

Unclear terminology can lead to difficulties in communication and erroneous translations,

and subsequently to incorrect measurements due to misunderstandings and, in the worst

case, even to lawsuits.

16.2 Definition—what is calibration?

The International Bureau of Weights and Measures15 defines calibration16 in the following

way:

an operation that, under specified conditions, in a first step, establishes a relation between

the quantity values with measurement uncertainties provided by measurement standards

and corresponding indications with associated measurement uncertainties and, in a sec-

ond step, uses this information to establish a relation for obtaining a measurement result

from an indication.

The calibration itself may be expressed in different formats: this can be a statement, cali-

bration function, calibration diagram17, calibration curve18, or calibration table.

Often, the first step alone in the above definition is perceived and referred to as being “cal-

ibration.” However, this is not (always) sufficient.

Considering the calibration procedure of a thermal camera, the first step establishes the

relation between emitted radiation (the quantity value) and the electrical output signal (the

indication). This first step of the calibration procedure consists of obtaining a homogene-

ous (or uniform) response when the camera is placed in front of an extended source of

radiation.

As we know the temperature of the reference source emitting the radiation, in the second

step the obtained output signal (the indication) can be related to the reference source’s

temperature (measurement result). The second step includes drift measurement and

compensation.

To be correct, calibration of a thermal camera is, strictly, not expressed through tempera-

ture. Thermal cameras are sensitive to infrared radiation: therefore, at first you obtain a ra-

diance correspondence, then a relationship between radiance and temperature. For

bolometer cameras used by non-R&D customers, radiance is not expressed: only the tem-

perature is provided.

16.3 Camera calibration at FLIR Systems

Without calibration, an infrared camera would not be able to measure either radiance or

temperature. At FLIR Systems, the calibration of uncooled microbolometer cameras with a

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15.http://www.bipm.org/en/about-us/ [Retrieved 2017-01-31.]

16.http://jcgm.bipm.org/vim/en/2.39.html [Retrieved 2017-01-31.]

17.http://jcgm.bipm.org/vim/en/4.30.html [Retrieved 2017-01-31.]

18.http://jcgm.bipm.org/vim/en/4.31.html [Retrieved 2017-01-31.]

About calibration16

measurement capability is carried out during both production and service. Cooled cam-

eras with photon detectors are often calibrated by the user with special software. With this

type of software, in theory, common handheld uncooled thermal cameras could be cali-

brated by the user too. However, as this software is not suitable for reporting purposes,

most users do not have it. Non-measuring devices that are used for imaging only do not

need temperature calibration. Sometimes this is also reflected in camera terminology

when talking about infrared or thermal imaging cameras compared with thermography

cameras, where the latter are the measuring devices.

The calibration information, no matter if the calibration is done by FLIR Systems or the

user, is stored in calibration curves, which are expressed by mathematical functions. As

radiation intensity changes with both temperature and the distance between the object

and the camera, different curves are generated for different temperature ranges and ex-

changeable lenses.

16.4 The differences between a calibration

performed by a user and that performed directly

at FLIR Systems

First, the reference sources that FLIR Systems uses are themselves calibrated and trace-

able. This means, at each FLIR Systems site performing calibration, that the sources are

controlled by an independent national authority. The camera calibration certificate is con-

firmation of this. It is proof that not only has the calibration been performed by FLIR Sys-

tems but that it has also been carried out using calibrated references. Some users own or

have access to accredited reference sources, but they are very few in number.

Second, there is a technical difference. When performing a user calibration, the result is

often (but not always) not drift compensated. This means that the values do not take into

account a possible change in the camera’s output when the camera’s internal temperature

varies. This yields a larger uncertainty. Drift compensation uses data obtained in climate-

controlled chambers. All FLIR Systems cameras are drift compensated when they are first

delivered to the customer and when they are recalibrated by FLIR Systems service

departments.

16.5 Calibration, verification and adjustment

A common misconception is to confuse calibration with verification or adjustment. Indeed,

calibration is a prerequisite for verification, which provides confirmation that specified re-

quirements are met. Verification provides objective evidence that a given item fulfills speci-

fied requirements. To obtain the verification, defined temperatures (emitted radiation) of

calibrated and traceable reference sources are measured. The measurement results, in-

cluding the deviation, are noted in a table. The verification certificate states that these

measurement results meet specified requirements. Sometimes, companies or organiza-

tions offer and market this verification certificate as a “calibration certificate.”

Proper verification—and by extension calibration and/or recalibration—can only be

achieved when a validated protocol is respected. The process is more than placing the

camera in front of blackbodies and checking if the camera output (as temperature, for in-

stance) corresponds to the original calibration table. It is often forgotten that a camera is

not sensitive to temperature but to radiation. Furthermore, a camera is an imaging system,

not just a single sensor. Consequently, if the optical configuration allowing the camera to

“collect” radiance is poor or misaligned, then the “verification” (or calibration or recalibra-

tion) is worthless.

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About calibration16

For instance, one has to ensure that the distance between the blackbody and the camera

as well as the diameter of the blackbody cavity are chosen so as to reduce stray radiation

and the size-of-source effect.

To summarize: a validated protocol must comply with the physical laws for radiance, and

not only those for temperature.

Calibration is also a prerequisite for adjustment, which is the set of operations carried out

on a measuring system such that the system provides prescribed indications correspond-

ing to given values of quantities to be measured, typically obtained from measurement

standards. Simplified, adjustment is a manipulation that results in instruments that meas-

ure correctly within their specifications. In everyday language, the term “calibration” is

widely used instead of “adjustment” for measuring devices.

16.6 Non-uniformity correction

When the thermal camera displays ”Calibrating…” it is adjusting for the deviation in re-

sponse of each individual detector element (pixel). In thermography, this is called a ”non-

uniformity correction” (NUC). It is an offset update, and the gain remains unchanged.

The European standard EN 16714-3, Non-destructive Testing—Thermographic Testing—

Part 3: Terms and Definitions, defines an NUC as “Image correction carried out by the

camera software to compensate for different sensitivities of detector elements and other

optical and geometrical disturbances.”

During the NUC (the offset update), a shutter (internal flag) is placed in the optical path,

and all the detector elements are exposed to the same amount of radiation originating

from the shutter. Therefore, in an ideal situation, they should all give the same output sig-

nal. However, each individual element has its own response, so the output is not uniform.

This deviation from the ideal result is calculated and used to mathematically perform an

image correction, which is essentially a correction of the displayed radiation signal. Some

cameras do not have an internal flag. In this case, the offset update must be performed

manually using special software and an external uniform source of radiation.

An NUC is performed, for example, at start-up, when changing a measurement range, or

when the environment temperature changes. Some cameras also allow the user to trigger

it manually. This is useful when you have to perform a critical measurement with as little

image disturbance as possible.

16.7 Thermal image adjustment (thermal

tuning)

Some people use the term “image calibration” when adjusting the thermal contrast and

brightness in the image to enhance specific details. During this operation, the temperature

interval is set in such a way that all available colors are used to show only (or mainly) the

temperatures in the region of interest. The correct term for this manipulation is “thermal im-

age adjustment” or “thermal tuning”, or, in some languages, “thermal image optimization.”

You must be in manual mode to undertake this, otherwise the camera will set the lower

and upper limits of the displayed temperature interval automatically to the coldest and hot-

test temperatures in the scene.

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History of infrared technology

Before the year 1800, the existence of the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum

wasn't even suspected. The original significance of the infrared spectrum, or simply ‘the in-

frared’ as it is often called, as a form of heat radiation is perhaps less obvious today than it

was at the time of its discovery by Herschel in 1800.

Figure 17.1 Sir William Herschel (1738–1822)

The discovery was made accidentally during the search for a new optical material. Sir Wil-

liam Herschel – Royal Astronomer to King George III of England, and already famous for

his discovery of the planet Uranus – was searching for an optical filter material to reduce

the brightness of the sun’s image in telescopes during solar observations. While testing

different samples of colored glass which gave similar reductions in brightness he was in-

trigued to find that some of the samples passed very little of the sun’s heat, while others

passed so much heat that he risked eye damage after only a few seconds’ observation.

Herschel was soon convinced of the necessity of setting up a systematic experiment, with

the objective of finding a single material that would give the desired reduction in brightness

as well as the maximum reduction in heat. He began the experiment by actually repeating

Newton’s prism experiment, but looking for the heating effect rather than the visual distri-

bution of intensity in the spectrum. He first blackened the bulb of a sensitive mercury-in-

glass thermometer with ink, and with this as his radiation detector he proceeded to test

the heating effect of the various colors of the spectrum formed on the top of a table by

passing sunlight through a glass prism. Other thermometers, placed outside the sun’s rays,

served as controls.

As the blackened thermometer was moved slowly along the colors of the spectrum, the

temperature readings showed a steady increase from the violet end to the red end. This

was not entirely unexpected, since the Italian researcher, Landriani, in a similar experiment

in 1777 had observed much the same effect. It was Herschel, however, who was the first

to recognize that there must be a point where the heating effect reaches a maximum, and

that measurements confined to the visible portion of the spectrum failed to locate this

point.

Figure 17.2 Marsilio Landriani (1746–1815)

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History of infrared technology

Moving the thermometer into the dark region beyond the red end of the spectrum, Her-

schel confirmed that the heating continued to increase. The maximum point, when he

found it, lay well beyond the red end – in what is known today as the ‘infrared wavelengths’.

When Herschel revealed his discovery, he referred to this new portion of the electromag-

netic spectrum as the ‘thermometrical spectrum’. The radiation itself he sometimes re-

ferred to as ‘dark heat’, or simply ‘the invisible rays’. Ironically, and contrary to popular

opinion, it wasn't Herschel who originated the term ‘infrared’. The word only began to ap-

pear in print around 75 years later, and it is still unclear who should receive credit as the

originator.

Herschel’s use of glass in the prism of his original experiment led to some early controver-

sies with his contemporaries about the actual existence of the infrared wavelengths. Differ-

ent investigators, in attempting to confirm his work, used various types of glass

indiscriminately, having different transparencies in the infrared. Through his later experi-

ments, Herschel was aware of the limited transparency of glass to the newly-discovered

thermal radiation, and he was forced to conclude that optics for the infrared would prob-

ably be doomed to the use of reflective elements exclusively (i.e. plane and curved mir-

rors). Fortunately, this proved to be true only until 1830, when the Italian investigator,

Melloni, made his great discovery that naturally occurring rock salt (NaCl) – which was

available in large enough natural crystals to be made into lenses and prisms – is remark-

ably transparent to the infrared. The result was that rock salt became the principal infrared

optical material, and remained so for the next hundred years, until the art of synthetic crys-

tal growing was mastered in the 1930’s.

Figure 17.3 Macedonio Melloni (1798–1854)

Thermometers, as radiation detectors, remained unchallenged until 1829, the year Nobili

invented the thermocouple. (Herschel’s own thermometer could be read to 0.2 °C (0.036 °

F), and later models were able to be read to 0.05 °C (0.09 °F)). Then a breakthrough oc-

curred; Melloni connected a number of thermocouples in series to form the first thermopile.

The new device was at least 40 times as sensitive as the best thermometer of the day for

detecting heat radiation – capable of detecting the heat from a person standing three me-

ters away.

The first so-called ‘heat-picture’ became possible in 1840, the result of work by Sir John

Herschel, son of the discoverer of the infrared and a famous astronomer in his own right.

Based upon the differential evaporation of a thin film of oil when exposed to a heat pattern

focused upon it, the thermal image could be seen by reflected light where the interference

effects of the oil film made the image visible to the eye. Sir John also managed to obtain a

primitive record of the thermal image on paper, which he called a ‘thermograph’.

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History of infrared technology

Figure 17.4 Samuel P. Langley (1834–1906)

The improvement of infrared-detector sensitivity progressed slowly. Another major break-

through, made by Langley in 1880, was the invention of the bolometer. This consisted of a

thin blackened strip of platinum connected in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge circuit upon

which the infrared radiation was focused and to which a sensitive galvanometer re-

sponded. This instrument is said to have been able to detect the heat from a cow at a dis-

tance of 400 meters.

An English scientist, Sir James Dewar, first introduced the use of liquefied gases as cool-

ing agents (such as liquid nitrogen with a temperature of –196°C (–320.8°F)) in low tem-

perature research. In 1892 he invented a unique vacuum insulating container in which it is

possible to store liquefied gases for entire days. The common ‘thermos bottle’, used for

storing hot and cold drinks, is based upon his invention.

Between the years 1900 and 1920, the inventors of the world ‘discovered’ the infrared.

Many patents were issued for devices to detect personnel, artillery, aircraft, ships – and

even icebergs. The first operating systems, in the modern sense, began to be developed

during the 1914–18 war, when both sides had research programs devoted to the military

exploitation of the infrared. These programs included experimental systems for enemy in-

trusion/detection, remote temperature sensing, secure communications, and ‘flying torpe-

do’ guidance. An infrared search system tested during this period was able to detect an

approaching airplane at a distance of 1.5 km (0.94 miles), or a person more than 300 me-

ters (984 ft.) away.

The most sensitive systems up to this time were all based upon variations of the bolometer

idea, but the period between the two wars saw the development of two revolutionary new

infrared detectors: the image converter and the photon detector. At first, the image con-

verter received the greatest attention by the military, because it enabled an observer for

the first time in history to literally ‘see in the dark’. However, the sensitivity of the image

converter was limited to the near infrared wavelengths, and the most interesting military

targets (i.e. enemy soldiers) had to be illuminated by infrared search beams. Since this in-

volved the risk of giving away the observer’s position to a similarly-equipped enemy ob-

server, it is understandable that military interest in the image converter eventually faded.

The tactical military disadvantages of so-called 'active’ (i.e. search beam-equipped) ther-

mal imaging systems provided impetus following the 1939–45 war for extensive secret

military infrared-research programs into the possibilities of developing ‘passive’ (no search

beam) systems around the extremely sensitive photon detector. During this period, military

secrecy regulations completely prevented disclosure of the status of infrared-imaging

technology. This secrecy only began to be lifted in the middle of the 1950’s, and from that

time adequate thermal-imaging devices finally began to be available to civilian science

and industry.

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Theory of thermography

18.1 Introduction

The subjects of infrared radiation and the related technique of thermography are still new

to many who will use an infrared camera. In this section the theory behind thermography

will be given.

18.2 The electromagnetic spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is divided arbitrarily into a number of wavelength regions,

called bands, distinguished by the methods used to produce and detect the radiation.

There is no fundamental difference between radiation in the different bands of the electro-

magnetic spectrum. They are all governed by the same laws and the only differences are

those due to differences in wavelength.

Figure 18.1 The electromagnetic spectrum. 1: X-ray; 2: UV; 3: Visible; 4: IR; 5: Microwaves; 6: Radiowaves.

Thermography makes use of the infrared spectral band. At the short-wavelength end the

boundary lies at the limit of visual perception, in the deep red. At the long-wavelength end

it merges with the microwave radio wavelengths, in the millimeter range.

The infrared band is often further subdivided into four smaller bands, the boundaries of

which are also arbitrarily chosen. They include: the near infrared (0.75–3 μm), the middle

infrared (3–6 μm), the far infrared (6–15 μm) and the extreme infrared (15–100 μm).

Although the wavelengths are given in μm (micrometers), other units are often still used to

measure wavelength in this spectral region, e.g. nanometer (nm) and Ångström (Å).

The relationships between the different wavelength measurements is:

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Theory of thermography

18.3 Blackbody radiation

A blackbody is defined as an object which absorbs all radiation that impinges on it at any

wavelength. The apparent misnomer black relating to an object emitting radiation is ex-

plained by Kirchhoff’s Law (after Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, 1824–1887), which states that a

body capable of absorbing all radiation at any wavelength is equally capable in the emis-

sion of radiation.

Figure 18.2 Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887)

The construction of a blackbody source is, in principle, very simple. The radiation charac-

teristics of an aperture in an isotherm cavity made of an opaque absorbing material repre-

sents almost exactly the properties of a blackbody. A practical application of the principle

to the construction of a perfect absorber of radiation consists of a box that is light tight ex-

cept for an aperture in one of the sides. Any radiation which then enters the hole is scat-

tered and absorbed by repeated reflections so only an infinitesimal fraction can possibly

escape. The blackness which is obtained at the aperture is nearly equal to a blackbody

and almost perfect for all wavelengths.

By providing such an isothermal cavity with a suitable heater it becomes what is termed a

cavity radiator. An isothermal cavity heated to a uniform temperature generates blackbody

radiation, the characteristics of which are determined solely by the temperature of the cav-

ity. Such cavity radiators are commonly used as sources of radiation in temperature refer-

ence standards in the laboratory for calibrating thermographic instruments, such as a

FLIR Systems camera for example.

If the temperature of blackbody radiation increases to more than 525°C (977°F), the

source begins to be visible so that it appears to the eye no longer black. This is the incipi-

ent red heat temperature of the radiator, which then becomes orange or yellow as the tem-

perature increases further. In fact, the definition of the so-called color temperature of an

object is the temperature to which a blackbody would have to be heated to have the same

appearance.

Now consider three expressions that describe the radiation emitted from a blackbody.

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Theory of thermography

18.3.1 Planck’s law

Figure 18.3 Max Planck (1858–1947)

Max Planck (1858–1947) was able to describe the spectral distribution of the radiation

from a blackbody by means of the following formula:

where:

Wλb Blackbody spectral radiant emittance at wavelength λ.

cVelocity of light = 3 × 108m/s

h Planck’s constant = 6.6 × 10-34 Joule sec.

k Boltzmann’s constant = 1.4 × 10-23 Joule/K.

T Absolute temperature (K) of a blackbody.

λ Wavelength (μm).

Note The factor 10-6 is used since spectral emittance in the curves is expressed in Watt/

m2, μm.

Planck’s formula, when plotted graphically for various temperatures, produces a family of

curves. Following any particular Planck curve, the spectral emittance is zero at λ = 0, then

increases rapidly to a maximum at a wavelength λmax and after passing it approaches zero

again at very long wavelengths. The higher the temperature, the shorter the wavelength at

which maximum occurs.

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Theory of thermography

Figure 18.4 Blackbody spectral radiant emittance according to Planck’s law, plotted for various absolute

temperatures. 1: Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm2× 103(μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm)

18.3.2 Wien’s displacement law

By differentiating Planck’s formula with respect to λ, and finding the maximum, we have:

This is Wien’s formula (after Wilhelm Wien, 1864–1928), which expresses mathematically

the common observation that colors vary from red to orange or yellow as the temperature

of a thermal radiator increases. The wavelength of the color is the same as the wavelength

calculated for λmax. A good approximation of the value of λmax for a given blackbody tem-

perature is obtained by applying the rule-of-thumb 3 000/T μm. Thus, a very hot star such

as Sirius (11 000 K), emitting bluish-white light, radiates with the peak of spectral radiant

emittance occurring within the invisible ultraviolet spectrum, at wavelength 0.27 μm.

Figure 18.5 Wilhelm Wien (1864–1928)

The sun (approx. 6 000 K) emits yellow light, peaking at about 0.5 μm in the middle of the

visible light spectrum.

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Theory of thermography

At room temperature (300 K) the peak of radiant emittance lies at 9.7 μm, in the far infra-

red, while at the temperature of liquid nitrogen (77 K) the maximum of the almost insignifi-

cant amount of radiant emittance occurs at 38 μm, in the extreme infrared wavelengths.

Figure 18.6 Planckian curves plotted on semi-log scales from 100 K to 1000 K. The dotted line represents

the locus of maximum radiant emittance at each temperature as described by Wien's displacement law. 1:

Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm2(μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm).

18.3.3 Stefan-Boltzmann's law

By integrating Planck’s formula from λ = 0 to λ = ∞, we obtain the total radiant emittance

(Wb) of a blackbody:

This is the Stefan-Boltzmann formula (after Josef Stefan, 1835–1893, and Ludwig Boltz-

mann, 1844–1906), which states that the total emissive power of a blackbody is propor-

tional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. Graphically, Wbrepresents the area

below the Planck curve for a particular temperature. It can be shown that the radiant emit-

tance in the interval λ = 0 to λmax is only 25% of the total, which represents about the

amount of the sun’s radiation which lies inside the visible light spectrum.

Figure 18.7 Josef Stefan (1835–1893), and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906)

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Theory of thermography

Using the Stefan-Boltzmann formula to calculate the power radiated by the human body,

at a temperature of 300 K and an external surface area of approx. 2 m2, we obtain 1 kW.

This power loss could not be sustained if it were not for the compensating absorption of ra-

diation from surrounding surfaces, at room temperatures which do not vary too drastically

from the temperature of the body – or, of course, the addition of clothing.

18.3.4 Non-blackbody emitters

So far, only blackbody radiators and blackbody radiation have been discussed. However,

real objects almost never comply with these laws over an extended wavelength region –

although they may approach the blackbody behavior in certain spectral intervals. For ex-

ample, a certain type of white paint may appear perfectly white in the visible light spectrum,

but becomes distinctly gray at about 2 μm, and beyond 3 μm it is almost black.

There are three processes which can occur that prevent a real object from acting like a

blackbody: a fraction of the incident radiation α may be absorbed, a fraction ρ may be re-

flected, and a fraction τ may be transmitted. Since all of these factors are more or less

wavelength dependent, the subscript λ is used to imply the spectral dependence of their

definitions. Thus:

• The spectral absorptance αλ= the ratio of the spectral radiant power absorbed by an ob-

ject to that incident upon it.

• The spectral reflectance ρλ= the ratio of the spectral radiant power reflected by an ob-

ject to that incident upon it.

• The spectral transmittance τλ= the ratio of the spectral radiant power transmitted

through an object to that incident upon it.

The sum of these three factors must always add up to the whole at any wavelength, so we

have the relation:

For opaque materials τλ= 0 and the relation simplifies to:

Another factor, called the emissivity, is required to describe the fraction ε of the radiant

emittance of a blackbody produced by an object at a specific temperature. Thus, we have

the definition:

The spectral emissivity ελ= the ratio of the spectral radiant power from an object to that

from a blackbody at the same temperature and wavelength.

Expressed mathematically, this can be written as the ratio of the spectral emittance of the

object to that of a blackbody as follows:

Generally speaking, there are three types of radiation source, distinguished by the ways in

which the spectral emittance of each varies with wavelength.

• A blackbody, for which ελ= ε = 1

• A graybody, for which ελ= ε = constant less than 1

• A selective radiator, for which ε varies with wavelength

According to Kirchhoff’s law, for any material the spectral emissivity and spectral absorp-

tance of a body are equal at any specified temperature and wavelength. That is:

From this we obtain, for an opaque material (since αλ+ ρλ= 1):

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Theory of thermography

For highly polished materials ελapproaches zero, so that for a perfectly reflecting material

(i.e. a perfect mirror) we have:

For a graybody radiator, the Stefan-Boltzmann formula becomes:

This states that the total emissive power of a graybody is the same as a blackbody at the

same temperature reduced in proportion to the value of ε from the graybody.

Figure 18.8 Spectral radiant emittance of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral radiant emittance; 2: Wave-

length; 3: Blackbody; 4: Selective radiator; 5: Graybody.

Figure 18.9 Spectral emissivity of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral emissivity; 2: Wavelength; 3: Black-

body; 4: Graybody; 5: Selective radiator.

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Theory of thermography

18.4 Infrared semi-transparent materials

Consider now a non-metallic, semi-transparent body – let us say, in the form of a thick flat

plate of plastic material. When the plate is heated, radiation generated within its volume

must work its way toward the surfaces through the material in which it is partially absorbed.

Moreover, when it arrives at the surface, some of it is reflected back into the interior. The

back-reflected radiation is again partially absorbed, but some of it arrives at the other sur-

face, through which most of it escapes; part of it is reflected back again. Although the pro-

gressive reflections become weaker and weaker they must all be added up when the total

emittance of the plate is sought. When the resulting geometrical series is summed, the ef-

fective emissivity of a semi-transparent plate is obtained as:

When the plate becomes opaque this formula is reduced to the single formula:

This last relation is a particularly convenient one, because it is often easier to measure re-

flectance than to measure emissivity directly.

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The measurement formula

As already mentioned, when viewing an object, the camera receives radiation not only

from the object itself. It also collects radiation from the surroundings reflected via the ob-

ject surface. Both these radiation contributions become attenuated to some extent by the

atmosphere in the measurement path. To this comes a third radiation contribution from the

atmosphere itself.

This description of the measurement situation, as illustrated in the figure below, is so far a

fairly true description of the real conditions. What has been neglected could for instance

be sun light scattering in the atmosphere or stray radiation from intense radiation sources

outside the field of view. Such disturbances are difficult to quantify, however, in most cases

they are fortunately small enough to be neglected. In case they are not negligible, the

measurement configuration is likely to be such that the risk for disturbance is obvious, at

least to a trained operator. It is then his responsibility to modify the measurement situation

to avoid the disturbance e.g. by changing the viewing direction, shielding off intense radia-

tion sources etc.

Accepting the description above, we can use the figure below to derive a formula for the

calculation of the object temperature from the calibrated camera output.

Figure 19.1 A schematic representation of the general thermographic measurement situation.1: Surround-

ings; 2: Object; 3: Atmosphere; 4: Camera

Assume that the received radiation power W from a blackbody source of temperature

Tsource on short distance generates a camera output signal Usource that is proportional to

the power input (power linear camera). We can then write (Equation 1):

or, with simplified notation:

where C is a constant.

Should the source be a graybody with emittance ε, the received radiation would conse-

quently be εWsource.

We are now ready to write the three collected radiation power terms:

1. Emission from the object = ετWobj, where ε is the emittance of the object and τ is the

transmittance of the atmosphere. The object temperature is Tobj.

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The measurement formula

2. Reflected emission from ambient sources = (1 – ε)τWrefl, where (1 – ε) is the reflec-

tance of the object. The ambient sources have the temperature Trefl.

It has here been assumed that the temperature Trefl is the same for all emitting surfaces

within the halfsphere seen from a point on the object surface. This is of course some-

times a simplification of the true situation. It is, however, a necessary simplification in

order to derive a workable formula, and Trefl can – at least theoretically – be given a val-

ue that represents an efficient temperature of a complex surrounding.

Note also that we have assumed that the emittance for the surroundings = 1. This is

correct in accordance with Kirchhoff’s law: All radiation impinging on the surrounding

surfaces will eventually be absorbed by the same surfaces. Thus the emittance = 1.

(Note though that the latest discussion requires the complete sphere around the object

to be considered.)

3. Emission from the atmosphere = (1 – τ)τWatm, where (1 – τ) is the emittance of the at-

mosphere. The temperature of the atmosphere is Tatm.

The total received radiation power can now be written (Equation 2):

We multiply each term by the constant C of Equation 1 and replace the CW products by

the corresponding U according to the same equation, and get (Equation 3):

Solve Equation 3 for Uobj (Equation 4):

This is the general measurement formula used in all the FLIR Systems thermographic

equipment. The voltages of the formula are:

Table 19.1 Voltages

Uobj Calculated camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature Tobj

i.e. a voltage that can be directly converted into true requested object

temperature.

Utot Measured camera output voltage for the actual case.

Urefl Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature

Trefl according to the calibration.

Uatm Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature

Tatm according to the calibration.

The operator has to supply a number of parameter values for the calculation:

• the object emittance ε,

• the relative humidity,

• Tatm

• object distance (Dobj)

• the (effective) temperature of the object surroundings, or the reflected ambient temper-

ature Trefl, and

• the temperature of the atmosphere Tatm

This task could sometimes be a heavy burden for the operator since there are normally no

easy ways to find accurate values of emittance and atmospheric transmittance for the

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The measurement formula

actual case. The two temperatures are normally less of a problem provided the surround-

ings do not contain large and intense radiation sources.

A natural question in this connection is: How important is it to know the right values of

these parameters? It could though be of interest to get a feeling for this problem already

here by looking into some different measurement cases and compare the relative magni-

tudes of the three radiation terms. This will give indications about when it is important to

use correct values of which parameters.

The figures below illustrates the relative magnitudes of the three radiation contributions for

three different object temperatures, two emittances, and two spectral ranges: SW and LW.

Remaining parameters have the following fixed values:

• τ = 0.88

• Trefl = +20°C (+68°F)

• Tatm = +20°C (+68°F)

It is obvious that measurement of low object temperatures are more critical than measur-

ing high temperatures since the ‘disturbing’ radiation sources are relatively much stronger

in the first case. Should also the object emittance be low, the situation would be still more

difficult.

We have finally to answer a question about the importance of being allowed to use the cal-

ibration curve above the highest calibration point, what we call extrapolation. Imagine that

we in a certain case measure Utot = 4.5 volts. The highest calibration point for the camera

was in the order of 4.1 volts, a value unknown to the operator. Thus, even if the object hap-

pened to be a blackbody, i.e. Uobj = Utot, we are actually performing extrapolation of the

calibration curve when converting 4.5 volts into temperature.

Let us now assume that the object is not black, it has an emittance of 0.75, and the trans-

mittance is 0.92. We also assume that the two second terms of Equation 4 amount to 0.5

volts together. Computation of Uobj by means of Equation 4 then results in Uobj = 4.5 / 0.75

/ 0.92 – 0.5 = 6.0. This is a rather extreme extrapolation, particularly when considering that

the video amplifier might limit the output to 5 volts! Note, though, that the application of the

calibration curve is a theoretical procedure where no electronic or other limitations exist.

We trust that if there had been no signal limitations in the camera, and if it had been cali-

brated far beyond 5 volts, the resulting curve would have been very much the same as our

real curve extrapolated beyond 4.1 volts, provided the calibration algorithm is based on ra-

diation physics, like the FLIR Systems algorithm. Of course there must be a limit to such

extrapolations.

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The measurement formula

Figure 19.2 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (SW camera).

1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radia-

tion. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; Trefl = 20°C (+68°F); Tatm = 20°C (+68°F).

Figure 19.3 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (LW camera).

1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radia-

tion. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; Trefl = 20°C (+68°F); Tatm = 20°C (+68°F).

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Emissivity tables

This section presents a compilation of emissivity data from the infrared literature and

measurements made by FLIR Systems.

20.1 References

1. Mikaél A. Bramson: Infrared Radiation, A Handbook for Applications, Plenum press, N.

2. William L. Wolfe, George J. Zissis: The Infrared Handbook, Office of Naval Research,

Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.

3. Madding, R. P.: Thermographic Instruments and systems. Madison, Wisconsin: Univer-

sity of Wisconsin – Extension, Department of Engineering and Applied Science.

4. William L. Wolfe: Handbook of Military Infrared Technology, Office of Naval Research,

Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.

5. Jones, Smith, Probert: External thermography of buildings..., Proc. of the Society of

Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol.110, Industrial and Civil Applications of

Infrared Technology, June 1977 London.

6. Paljak, Pettersson: Thermography of Buildings, Swedish Building Research Institute,

Stockholm 1972.

7. Vlcek, J: Determination of emissivity with imaging radiometers and some emissivities

at λ = 5 µm. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing.

8. Kern: Evaluation of infrared emission of clouds and ground as measured by weather

satellites, Defence Documentation Center, AD 617 417.

9. Öhman, Claes: Emittansmätningar med AGEMA E-Box. Teknisk rapport, AGEMA

1999. (Emittance measurements using AGEMA E-Box. Technical report, AGEMA

1999.)

10. Matteï, S., Tang-Kwor, E: Emissivity measurements for Nextel Velvet coating 811-21

between –36°C AND 82°C.

11. Lohrengel & Todtenhaupt (1996)

12. ITC Technical publication 32.

13. ITC Technical publication 29.

14. Schuster, Norbert and Kolobrodov, Valentin G. Infrarotthermographie. Berlin: Wiley-

VCH, 2000.

Note The emissivity values in the table below are recorded using a shortwave (SW) cam-

era. The values should be regarded as recommendations only and used with caution.

20.2 Tables

Table 20.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference

1 2 3 4 5 6

3M type 35 Vinyl electrical

tape (several

colors)

< 80 LW ≈ 0.96 13

3M type 88 Black vinyl electri-

cal tape

< 105 LW ≈ 0.96 13

3M type 88 Black vinyl electri-

cal tape

< 105 MW < 0.96 13

3M type Super 33

Black vinyl electri-

cal tape

< 80 LW ≈ 0.96 13

Aluminum anodized sheet 100 T 0.55 2

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Emissivity tables20

Table 20.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Aluminum anodized, black,

dull

70 SW 0.67 9

Aluminum anodized, black,

dull

70 LW 0.95 9

Aluminum anodized, light

gray, dull

70 SW 0.61 9

Aluminum anodized, light

gray, dull

70 LW 0.97 9

Aluminum as received, plate 100 T 0.09 4

Aluminum as received, sheet 100 T 0.09 2

Aluminum cast, blast

cleaned

70 SW 0.47 9

Aluminum cast, blast

cleaned

70 LW 0.46 9

Aluminum dipped in HNO3,

plate

100 T 0.05 4

Aluminum foil 27 10 µm 0.04 3

Aluminum foil 27 3 µm 0.09 3

Aluminum oxidized, strongly 50–500 T 0.2–0.3 1

Aluminum polished 50–100 T 0.04–0.06 1

Aluminum polished plate 100 T 0.05 4

Aluminum polished, sheet 100 T 0.05 2

Aluminum rough surface 20–50 T 0.06–0.07 1

Aluminum roughened 27 10 µm 0.18 3

Aluminum roughened 27 3 µm 0.28 3

Aluminum sheet, 4 samples

differently

scratched

70 SW 0.05–0.08 9

Aluminum sheet, 4 samples

differently

scratched

70 LW 0.03–0.06 9

Aluminum vacuum deposited 20 T 0.04 2

Aluminum weathered,

heavily

17 SW 0.83–0.94 5

Aluminum bronze 20 T 0.60 1

Aluminum

hydroxide

powder T 0.28 1

Aluminum oxide activated, powder T 0.46 1

Aluminum oxide pure, powder

(alumina)

T 0.16 1

Asbestos board 20 T 0.96 1

Asbestos fabric T 0.78 1

Asbestos floor tile 35 SW 0.94 7

Asbestos paper 40–400 T 0.93–0.95 1

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Emissivity tables20

Table 20.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Asbestos powder T 0.40–0.60 1

Asbestos slate 20 T 0.96 1

Asphalt paving 4 LLW 0.967 8

Brass dull, tarnished 20–350 T 0.22 1

Brass oxidized 100 T 0.61 2

Brass oxidized 70 SW 0.04–0.09 9

Brass oxidized 70 LW 0.03–0.07 9

Brass oxidized at 600°C 200–600 T 0.59–0.61 1

Brass polished 200 T 0.03 1

Brass polished, highly 100 T 0.03 2

Brass rubbed with 80-

grit emery

20 T 0.20 2

Brass sheet, rolled 20 T 0.06 1

Brass sheet, worked

with emery

20 T 0.2 1

Brick alumina 17 SW 0.68 5

Brick common 17 SW 0.86–0.81 5

Brick Dinas silica,

glazed, rough

1100 T 0.85 1

Brick Dinas silica,

refractory

1000 T 0.66 1

Brick Dinas silica, un-

glazed, rough

1000 T 0.80 1

Brick firebrick 17 SW 0.68 5

Brick fireclay 1000 T 0.75 1

Brick fireclay 1200 T 0.59 1

Brick fireclay 20 T 0.85 1

Brick masonry 35 SW 0.94 7

Brick masonry,

plastered

20 T 0.94 1

Brick red, common 20 T 0.93 2

Brick red, rough 20 T 0.88–0.93 1

Brick refractory,

corundum

1000 T 0.46 1

Brick refractory,

magnesite

1000–1300 T 0.38 1

Brick refractory, strongly

radiating

500–1000 T 0.8–0.9 1

Brick refractory, weakly

radiating

500–1000 T 0.65–0.75 1

Brick silica, 95% SiO21230 T 0.66 1

Brick sillimanite, 33%

SiO2, 64% Al2O3

1500 T 0.29 1

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Emissivity tables20

Table 20.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Brick waterproof 17 SW 0.87 5

Bronze phosphor bronze 70 SW 0.08 9

Bronze phosphor bronze 70 LW 0.06 9

Bronze polished 50 T 0.1 1

Bronze porous, rough 50–150 T 0.55 1

Bronze powder T 0.76–0.80 1

Carbon candle soot 20 T 0.95 2

Carbon charcoal powder T 0.96 1

Carbon graphite powder T 0.97 1

Carbon graphite, filed

surface

20 T 0.98 2

Carbon lampblack 20–400 T 0.95–0.97 1

Chipboard untreated 20 SW 0.90 6

Chromium polished 50 T 0.10 1

Chromium polished 500–1000 T 0.28–0.38 1

Clay fired 70 T 0.91 1

Cloth black 20 T 0.98 1

Concrete 20 T 0.92 2

Concrete dry 36 SW 0.95 7

Concrete rough 17 SW 0.97 5

Concrete walkway 5LLW 0.974 8

Copper commercial,

burnished

20 T 0.07 1

Copper electrolytic, care-

fully polished

80 T 0.018 1

Copper electrolytic,

polished

–34 T 0.006 4

Copper molten 1100–1300 T 0.13–0.15 1

Copper oxidized 50 T 0.6–0.7 1

Copper oxidized to

blackness

T 0.88 1

Copper oxidized, black 27 T 0.78 4

Copper oxidized, heavily 20 T 0.78 2

Copper polished 50–100 T 0.02 1

Copper polished 100 T 0.03 2

Copper polished,

commercial

27 T 0.03 4

Copper polished,

mechanical

22 T 0.015 4

Copper pure, carefully

prepared surface

22 T 0.008 4

Copper scraped 27 T 0.07 4

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Emissivity tables20

Table 20.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Copper dioxide powder T 0.84 1

Copper oxide red, powder T 0.70 1

Ebonite T 0.89 1

Emery coarse 80 T 0.85 1

Enamel 20 T 0.9 1

Enamel lacquer 20 T 0.85–0.95 1

Fiber board hard, untreated 20 SW 0.85 6

Fiber board masonite 70 SW 0.75 9

Fiber board masonite 70 LW 0.88 9

Fiber board particle board 70 SW 0.77 9

Fiber board particle board 70 LW 0.89 9

Fiber board porous, untreated 20 SW 0.85 6

Glass pane (float

glass)

non-coated 20 LW 0.97 14

Gold polished 130 T 0.018 1

Gold polished, carefully 200–600 T 0.02–0.03 1

Gold polished, highly 100 T 0.02 2

Granite polished 20 LLW 0.849 8

Granite rough 21 LLW 0.879 8

Granite rough, 4 different

samples

70 SW 0.95–0.97 9

Granite rough, 4 different

samples

70 LW 0.77–0.87 9

Gypsum 20 T 0.8–0.9 1

Ice: See Water

Iron and steel cold rolled 70 SW 0.20 9

Iron and steel cold rolled 70 LW 0.09 9

Iron and steel covered with red

rust

20 T 0.61–0.85 1

Iron and steel electrolytic 100 T 0.05 4

Iron and steel electrolytic 22 T 0.05 4

Iron and steel electrolytic 260 T 0.07 4

Iron and steel electrolytic, care-

fully polished

175–225 T 0.05–0.06 1

Iron and steel freshly worked

with emery

20 T 0.24 1

Iron and steel ground sheet 950–1100 T 0.55–0.61 1

Iron and steel heavily rusted

sheet

20 T 0.69 2

Iron and steel hot rolled 130 T 0.60 1

Iron and steel hot rolled 20 T 0.77 1

Iron and steel oxidized 100 T 0.74 4

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Emissivity tables20

Table 20.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Iron and steel oxidized 100 T 0.74 1

Iron and steel oxidized 1227 T 0.89 4

Iron and steel oxidized 125–525 T 0.78–0.82 1

Iron and steel oxidized 200 T 0.79 2

Iron and steel oxidized 200–600 T 0.80 1

Iron and steel oxidized strongly 50 T 0.88 1

Iron and steel oxidized strongly 500 T 0.98 1

Iron and steel polished 100 T 0.07 2

Iron and steel polished 400–1000 T 0.14–0.38 1

Iron and steel polished sheet 750–1050 T 0.52–0.56 1

Iron and steel rolled sheet 50 T 0.56 1

Iron and steel rolled, freshly 20 T 0.24 1

Iron and steel rough, plane

surface

50 T 0.95–0.98 1

Iron and steel rusted red, sheet 22 T 0.69 4

Iron and steel rusted, heavily 17 SW 0.96 5

Iron and steel rusty, red 20 T 0.69 1

Iron and steel shiny oxide layer,

sheet,

20 T 0.82 1

Iron and steel shiny, etched 150 T 0.16 1

Iron and steel wrought, carefully

polished

40–250 T 0.28 1

Iron galvanized heavily oxidized 70 SW 0.64 9

Iron galvanized heavily oxidized 70 LW 0.85 9

Iron galvanized sheet 92 T 0.07 4

Iron galvanized sheet, burnished 30 T 0.23 1

Iron galvanized sheet, oxidized 20 T 0.28 1

Iron tinned sheet 24 T 0.064 4

Iron, cast casting 50 T 0.81 1

Iron, cast ingots 1000 T 0.95 1

Iron, cast liquid 1300 T 0.28 1

Iron, cast machined 800–1000 T 0.60–0.70 1

Iron, cast oxidized 100 T 0.64 2

Iron, cast oxidized 260 T 0.66 4

Iron, cast oxidized 38 T 0.63 4

Iron, cast oxidized 538 T 0.76 4

Iron, cast oxidized at 600°C 200–600 T 0.64–0.78 1

Iron, cast polished 200 T 0.21 1

Iron, cast polished 38 T 0.21 4

Iron, cast polished 40 T 0.21 2

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Emissivity tables20

Table 20.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Iron, cast unworked 900–1100 T 0.87–0.95 1

Krylon Ultra-flat

black 1602

Flat black Room tempera-

ture up to 175

LW ≈ 0.96 12

Krylon Ultra-flat

black 1602

Flat black Room tempera-

ture up to 175

MW ≈ 0.97 12

Lacquer 3 colors sprayed

on Aluminum

70 SW 0.50–0.53 9

Lacquer 3 colors sprayed

on Aluminum

70 LW 0.92–0.94 9

Lacquer Aluminum on

rough surface

20 T 0.4 1

Lacquer bakelite 80 T 0.83 1

Lacquer black, dull 40–100 T 0.96–0.98 1

Lacquer black, matte 100 T 0.97 2

Lacquer black, shiny,

sprayed on iron

20 T 0.87 1

Lacquer heat–resistant 100 T 0.92 1

Lacquer white 100 T 0.92 2

Lacquer white 40–100 T 0.8–0.95 1

Lead oxidized at 200°C 200 T 0.63 1

Lead oxidized, gray 20 T 0.28 1

Lead oxidized, gray 22 T 0.28 4

Lead shiny 250 T 0.08 1

Lead unoxidized,

polished

100 T 0.05 4

Lead red 100 T 0.93 4

Lead red, powder 100 T 0.93 1

Leather tanned T 0.75–0.80 1

Lime T 0.3–0.4 1

Magnesium 22 T 0.07 4

Magnesium 260 T 0.13 4

Magnesium 538 T 0.18 4

Magnesium polished 20 T 0.07 2

Magnesium

powder

T 0.86 1

Molybdenum 1500–2200 T 0.19–0.26 1

Molybdenum 600–1000 T 0.08–0.13 1

Molybdenum filament 700–2500 T 0.1–0.3 1

Mortar 17 SW 0.87 5

Mortar dry 36 SW 0.94 7

Nextel Velvet 811-

21 Black

Flat black –60–150 LW > 0.97 10 and

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Emissivity tables20

Table 20.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Nichrome rolled 700 T 0.25 1

Nichrome sandblasted 700 T 0.70 1

Nichrome wire, clean 50 T 0.65 1

Nichrome wire, clean 500–1000 T 0.71–0.79 1

Nichrome wire, oxidized 50–500 T 0.95–0.98 1

Nickel bright matte 122 T 0.041 4

Nickel commercially pure,

polished

100 T 0.045 1

Nickel commercially pure,

polished

200–400 T 0.07–0.09 1

Nickel electrolytic 22 T 0.04 4

Nickel electrolytic 260 T 0.07 4

Nickel electrolytic 38 T 0.06 4

Nickel electrolytic 538 T 0.10 4

Nickel electroplated on

iron, polished

22 T 0.045 4

Nickel electroplated on

iron, unpolished

20 T 0.11–0.40 1

Nickel electroplated on

iron, unpolished

22 T 0.11 4

Nickel electroplated,

polished

20 T 0.05 2

Nickel oxidized 1227 T 0.85 4

Nickel oxidized 200 T 0.37 2

Nickel oxidized 227 T 0.37 4

Nickel oxidized at 600°C 200–600 T 0.37–0.48 1

Nickel polished 122 T 0.045 4

Nickel wire 200–1000 T 0.1–0.2 1

Nickel oxide 1000–1250 T 0.75–0.86 1

Nickel oxide 500–650 T 0.52–0.59 1

Oil, lubricating 0.025 mm film 20 T 0.27 2

Oil, lubricating 0.050 mm film 20 T 0.46 2

Oil, lubricating 0.125 mm film 20 T 0.72 2

Oil, lubricating film on Ni base: Ni

base only

20 T 0.05 2

Oil, lubricating thick coating 20 T 0.82 2

Paint 8 different colors

and qualities

70 SW 0.88–0.96 9

Paint 8 different colors

and qualities

70 LW 0.92–0.94 9

Paint Aluminum, various

ages

50–100 T 0.27–0.67 1

Paint cadmium yellow T 0.28–0.33 1

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 89

Emissivity tables20

Table 20.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Paint chrome green T 0.65–0.70 1

Paint cobalt blue T 0.7–0.8 1

Paint oil 17 SW 0.87 5

Paint oil based, average

of 16 colors

100 T 0.94 2

Paint oil, black flat 20 SW 0.94 6

Paint oil, black gloss 20 SW 0.92 6

Paint oil, gray flat 20 SW 0.97 6

Paint oil, gray gloss 20 SW 0.96 6

Paint oil, various colors 100 T 0.92–0.96 1

Paint plastic, black 20 SW 0.95 6

Paint plastic, white 20 SW 0.84 6

Paper 4 different colors 70 SW 0.68–0.74 9

Paper 4 different colors 70 LW 0.92–0.94 9

Paper black T 0.90 1

Paper black, dull T 0.94 1

Paper black, dull 70 SW 0.86 9

Paper black, dull 70 LW 0.89 9

Paper blue, dark T 0.84 1

Paper coated with black

lacquer

T 0.93 1

Paper green T 0.85 1

Paper red T 0.76 1

Paper white 20 T 0.7–0.9 1

Paper white bond 20 T 0.93 2

Paper white, 3 different

glosses

70 SW 0.76–0.78 9

Paper white, 3 different

glosses

70 LW 0.88–0.90 9

Paper yellow T 0.72 1

Plaster 17 SW 0.86 5

Plaster plasterboard,

untreated

20 SW 0.90 6

Plaster rough coat 20 T 0.91 2

Plastic glass fibre lami-

nate (printed circ.

board)

70 SW 0.94 9

Plastic glass fibre lami-

nate (printed circ.

board)

70 LW 0.91 9

Plastic polyurethane iso-

lation board

70 LW 0.55 9

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 90

Emissivity tables20

Table 20.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Plastic polyurethane iso-

lation board

70 SW 0.29 9

Plastic PVC, plastic floor,

dull, structured

70 SW 0.94 9

Plastic PVC, plastic floor,

dull, structured

70 LW 0.93 9

Platinum 100 T 0.05 4

Platinum 1000–1500 T 0.14–0.18 1

Platinum 1094 T 0.18 4

Platinum 17 T 0.016 4

Platinum 22 T 0.03 4

Platinum 260 T 0.06 4

Platinum 538 T 0.10 4

Platinum pure, polished 200–600 T 0.05–0.10 1

Platinum ribbon 900–1100 T 0.12–0.17 1

Platinum wire 1400 T 0.18 1

Platinum wire 500–1000 T 0.10–0.16 1

Platinum wire 50–200 T 0.06–0.07 1

Porcelain glazed 20 T 0.92 1

Porcelain white, shiny T 0.70–0.75 1

Rubber hard 20 T 0.95 1

Rubber soft, gray, rough 20 T 0.95 1

Sand T 0.60 1

Sand 20 T 0.90 2

Sandstone polished 19 LLW 0.909 8

Sandstone rough 19 LLW 0.935 8

Silver polished 100 T 0.03 2

Silver pure, polished 200–600 T 0.02–0.03 1

Skin human 32 T 0.98 2

Slag boiler 0–100 T 0.97–0.93 1

Slag boiler 1400–1800 T 0.69–0.67 1

Slag boiler 200–500 T 0.89–0.78 1

Slag boiler 600–1200 T 0.76–0.70 1

Snow: See Water

Soil dry 20 T 0.92 2

Soil saturated with

water

20 T 0.95 2

Stainless steel alloy, 8% Ni, 18%

500 T 0.35 1

Stainless steel rolled 700 T 0.45 1

Stainless steel sandblasted 700 T 0.70 1

Stainless steel sheet, polished 70 SW 0.18 9

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 91

Emissivity tables20

Table 20.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Stainless steel sheet, polished 70 LW 0.14 9

Stainless steel sheet, untreated,

somewhat

scratched

70 SW 0.30 9

Stainless steel sheet, untreated,

somewhat

scratched

70 LW 0.28 9

Stainless steel type 18-8, buffed 20 T 0.16 2

Stainless steel type 18-8, oxi-

dized at 800°C

60 T 0.85 2

Stucco rough, lime 10–90 T 0.91 1

Styrofoam insulation 37 SW 0.60 7

Tar T 0.79–0.84 1

Tar paper 20 T 0.91–0.93 1

Tile glazed 17 SW 0.94 5

Tin burnished 20–50 T 0.04–0.06 1

Tin tin–plated sheet

iron

100 T 0.07 2

Titanium oxidized at 540°C 1000 T 0.60 1

Titanium oxidized at 540°C 200 T 0.40 1

Titanium oxidized at 540°C 500 T 0.50 1

Titanium polished 1000 T 0.36 1

Titanium polished 200 T 0.15 1

Titanium polished 500 T 0.20 1

Tungsten 1500–2200 T 0.24–0.31 1

Tungsten 200 T 0.05 1

Tungsten 600–1000 T 0.1–0.16 1

Tungsten filament 3300 T 0.39 1

Varnish flat 20 SW 0.93 6

Varnish on oak parquet

floor

70 SW 0.90 9

Varnish on oak parquet

floor

70 LW 0.90–0.93 9

Wallpaper slight pattern, light

gray

20 SW 0.85 6

Wallpaper slight pattern, red 20 SW 0.90 6

Water distilled 20 T 0.96 2

Water frost crystals –10 T 0.98 2

Water ice, covered with

heavy frost

0 T 0.98 1

Water ice, smooth 0 T 0.97 1

Water ice, smooth –10 T 0.96 2

Water layer >0.1 mm

thick

0–100 T 0.95–0.98 1

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 92

Emissivity tables20

Table 20.1 T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification; 3:

Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Water snow T 0.8 1

Water snow –10 T 0.85 2

Wood 17 SW 0.98 5

Wood 19 LLW 0.962 8

Wood ground T 0.5–0.7 1

Wood pine, 4 different

samples

70 SW 0.67–0.75 9

Wood pine, 4 different

samples

70 LW 0.81–0.89 9

Wood planed 20 T 0.8–0.9 1

Wood planed oak 20 T 0.90 2

Wood planed oak 70 SW 0.77 9

Wood planed oak 70 LW 0.88 9

Wood plywood, smooth,

dry

36 SW 0.82 7

Wood plywood,

untreated

20 SW 0.83 6

Wood white, damp 20 T 0.7–0.8 1

Zinc oxidized at 400°C 400 T 0.11 1

Zinc oxidized surface 1000–1200 T 0.50–0.60 1

Zinc polished 200–300 T 0.04–0.05 1

Zinc sheet 50 T 0.20 1

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 93

A note on the technical production of this publication

This publication was produced using XML — the eXtensible Markup Language. For more information about

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A note on the typeface used in this publication

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LOEF (List Of Effective Files)

T501109.xml; en-US; AN; 42281; 2017-04-27

T505552.xml; en-US; 9599; 2013-11-05

T505469.xml; en-US; 39689; 2017-01-25

T505013.xml; en-US; 39689; 2017-01-25

T505799.xml; en-US; 39839; 2017-01-30

T505800.xml; en-US; 39839; 2017-01-30

T505801.xml; en-US; 40414; 2017-02-16

T505816.xml; en-US; 40286; 2017-02-14

T505470.xml; en-US; 39513; 2017-01-18

T505012.xml; en-US; 41563; 2017-03-23

T505007.xml; en-US; 39512; 2017-01-18

T506125.xml; en-US; 40753; 2017-03-02

T505000.xml; en-US; 39687; 2017-01-25

T506051.xml; en-US; 40460; 2017-02-20

T505005.xml; en-US; 41563; 2017-03-23

T505001.xml; en-US; 41563; 2017-03-23

T505006.xml; en-US; 41563; 2017-03-23

T505002.xml; en-US; 39512; 2017-01-18

#T559918; r. AN/42281/42281; en-US 94

last page

Publ. No.: T559918

Release: AN

Commit: 42281

Head: 42281

Language: en-US

Modified: 2017-04-27

Formatted: 2017-05-02

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